CHAPTER 11

Lighting for Television

“Pore over artwork and other films. Study the lighting and consider how it serves the story being presented.”

Thomas McKenney, Director of Photography

“When it comes to image acquisition, lighting is still the art that separates the amateurs from the pros.”

Jay Holben, Producer

Barn doors: Metal flaps attached to the front of a lighting instrument; used to control where the light falls on a scene.

Base light: The minimal amount of light that allows the camera to see the subject.

Diffuser: Some type of a translucent material (wire mesh, frosted plastic, or spun-glass sheet) that diffuses and reduces the light’s intensity.

Flood light: Also known as soft light; the scattered, diffused, shadowless illumination that in nature comes from a cloudy overcast sky, and is reflected from rough surfaces of all kinds.

Gaffer: The head of the electrical department, many times in charge of lighting on a television set.

Gels: Color gels (filters) can be placed over lights to enhance the color of the light.

Incident light: Also known as direct lighting; what’s measured with a handheld light meter—that is, the amount of light falling on a subject. When measuring incident lighting, the light meter must be positioned next to the subject, pointed at the light sources.

Key light: The main light, usually a spotlight, that reveals the shape and surface features of the subject.

Lighting plot: A plan that shows where each light will be placed on the set.

Reflected light: Measured with a handheld light meter or a camera’s built-in meter; the light bouncing off of a subject. In this situation, the meter is aimed directly at a subject.

Spotlights: Spotlights are a directional or hard illumination that produces sharp shadows.

Three-point lighting: Also known as photographic lighting and triangle lighting; use of two spotlights (key light and back light) and a flood light (fill) to illuminate the subject.

White balance: The process of calibrating a camera so that the light source will be reproduced accurately as white; the most common technique of color-balancing a camera.

Zebra: Some video cameras include a zebra indicator in the viewfinder. The zebra allows camera operators to evaluate the exposure of the image in the viewfinder by showing all over-exposed segments of a scene with stripes.

 

Effective lighting makes a vital contribution to a television production. We quickly recognize bad lighting when we see it, but good lighting is so unobtrusive and “natural” that we usually take it for granted. In this chapter, you will learn some successful lighting techniques.

FIGURE 11.1
Lighting helps create the mood of event.

FIGURE 11.2
Your eyes are drawn to the brightest area of the screen. The director can guide the audience’s attention by lighting specific areas brighter than others.

THE GOALS OF LIGHTING

Lighting in television and film is about much more than just making things visible. It has to also satisfy a number of often-conflicting objectives:

 The lighting must be bright enough to enable all the television cameras to produce pictures of the highest quality. This is usually referred to as base lighting.

 Lighting should convey to the viewer the time, mood, and atmosphere of the story (Figure 11.1).

 The lighting must provide a consistent look, as chosen by the director. That means it must look consistent from each camera angle.

 The lighting must fit in with the other components of the studio or location: scenery, camera placement, mic placement, and so on. Badly positioned lights can prevent the talent from reading the teleprompter, cause flares in a camera lens, result in shadows, spoil a skillfully designed setting, and degrade makeup.

 Good lighting creates a three-dimensional illusion in a flat image. It provides an impression of solidity and depth in subjects and surroundings.

 Lighting should lower the contrast ratio between the light and dark areas. By adding more light to the dark areas or dimming the extremely light areas, it is possible to get more detail in both areas.

 Successful lighting guides the audience’s interest. It directs their attention toward important features, because the viewer’s eyes are generally attracted to the brightest area of the screen. Lighting can create compositional opportunities for the camera (Figure 11.2).

 Lighting is used to increase or reduce the picture’s depth of field.

WHY IS LIGHTING NECESSARY?

Technical Reasons

As you know, the camera needs a certain amount of light reflected from the scene to be able to produce a good tonal range in the image. If there is too little light, the lens aperture has to be opened up to compensate, and the available depth of field is considerably reduced. When there is too much light, the images become over-exposed, unless the lens is stopped down (the depth may now be too great) or a neutral-density filter is used to reduce the light. In the studio, excess light wastes power, causes ventilation problems, and is unpleasant to work in. Light levels need to be related, wherever possible, to the preferred working f-stop.

Unlike film, the television camera can handle and reproduce only relatively limited tonal contrasts. If the lighting is contrasty, details in the lightest and darkest tones will be lost.

On location, the existing lighting may not be suitable. From the camera position, it may prove to be:

 Too bright: strong sunlight causing performers to squint their eyes

 Too dim: insufficient for well-exposed shots

 Too flat: diffused light in which subjects lack form or definition

 Too contrasty: lighter tones burned out (pure white) and shadows too black

Under these conditions, we need to augment or replace the natural lighting—or tolerate the results. Sometimes the only solution is to alter the camera position (Figures 11.3 and 11.4).

FIGURE 11.3
Light was added to this daylight scene so that the talent had even lighting while shooting a segment for Access Hollywood.

FIGURE 11.4
Two LED lights were used to balance lighting in the room with the arena lighting in the background for this interview with William Shatner.

Artistic Reasons

Lighting plays a major part in how we interpret what we see. Even when structure and outline give us leading clues, the play of light and shade strongly influences our judgments of size, shape, distance, surface texture, and contours.

Lighting is strongly associated with mood. Through carefully chosen light direction and contrast, you can change a scene’s entire atmosphere. It can portray fun, fantasy, mystery, or dramatic tension. Lighting can enhance a setting and create pictorial beauty, or it can deliberately create a harsh, unattractive setting.

You can use light selectively to emphasize certain aspects of the scene while subduing others, or avoiding or reducing distracting features. You can exaggerate form, and draw attention to texture or suppress it. Through shadow formations, lighting can suggest structures that do not exist, or hide what is there.

THE NATURE OF LIGHT

Light can be applied with large “brush strokes,” or with fine delicate attention to detail. It can be washed across the scene, or used to pick out and emphasize certain features. But to exercise this control, you must be able to appreciate the subtleties of light itself. Let’s take a look at the practical basics of illumination:

Light intensity: The strength of light that we require on the subject and the surroundings will determine how powerful the lamps need to be, relative to the area they have to cover.

Color temperature: The color quality of the light. Light and camera performance should be matched to avoid poor color quality.

Light dispersion: Some light sources produce hard light, which casts strong shadows; others create soft light, which is diffused and has few shadows. This range of tools offers us the choice of bold brush strokes or subtly graded halftones.

Light direction: The direction of the light affects the way light and shade fall on a subject. It determines which features are highlighted, and which fall into shadow.

Light Intensity

The amount of light needed to illuminate a set or location and the action within it is partly a technical decision and partly an artistic one. You might, for example, use one strong key light to cover both the action and the background, or a series of restricted lamps, each lighting a carefully chosen area.

Camera systems are usually quoted as having a specific sensitivity, requiring a certain light level (intensity) for a given f-stop. But this is only a general guide. A lot depends on the nature of the surroundings and the mood the director wants to create. To reveal detail in the walls of a dark-paneled room will require much more light than would be needed with light-toned walls.

Lighting intensities can be influenced by the surface finish: whether walls are smooth or rough textured, and whether they are plain or strongly contoured. The contrast range of the set dressings used can also affect the amount of light needed to illuminate a situation effectively.

Interestingly, a spacious light-toned setting may require less-intense lighting than much smaller dark-toned surroundings. Lighting quality cannot be judged by the watts of the lights. The most helpful way to review the lighting is on an actual monitor, on which we can assess its artistic effect and judge its technical qualities.

There are two primary ways of measuring the lighting in a scene (Figure 11.5):

FIGURE 11.5
Standalone light meters are used to measure incident or direct lighting. Cameras have built-in reflected light meters. (Photos courtesy of Sony and Mole-Richardson)

 Incident light measurement helps to assess the relative intensities of lighting from various directions. When measuring incident lighting, the light meter must be positioned next to the subject, pointed at the light sources. It is measuring the amount of light that is falling on the subject, from the subject’s perspective.

 Reflected light measurement provides a general indication of the amount of reflected light reaching the camera. Reflected light measurements average the amount of light reflected from the scene, arriving at the camera’s lens. In this situation, the meter is aimed directly at the subject. Television cameras use reflected light metering. Today’s more advanced cameras can adjust the meters to average the light, and center-weight the sensor (use the center of the image to meter the lighting), in addition to other options.

The Color Quality of Light

The eye and brain are astonishingly adaptable. We appear to see effects that are not really there (as in optical illusions), and we overlook effects that can be clearly measured by an instrument. An everyday example of the latter is the way we accept a very wide range of quite different light qualities as representing “white” light. If we analyze “white” light, we find that it is really a mixture of a range of colors. The spectrum is red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet light in similar proportions. In many forms of illumination, some parts of the spectrum are much more prominent than others, and the result is far from true white. For example, light from candles or dimmed tungsten lamps actually has a warm yellowish-red color quality; or, as we say, a low color temperature. Daylight can vary considerably, from cold, bluish north-sky light to the warm quality of light around sunset. Yet our brains compensate, and accept all these sources of illumination as white light. Television cameras are not fooled in this way. They do not self-compensate. If the lighting has bluish or yellowish characteristics, the images will show this as a pronounced color cast. There are basically two ways to correct the color when shooting:

 Adjust the camera to compensate for the color variations of the prevailing light, by using a suitable color-correction filter (in the filter wheel) and/or by adjusting the white balance. The white balance is usually adjusted by aiming the camera at a white surface while pressing the white balance button.

 Adjust the color temperature of the light to suit the camera’s color balance. If you are using tungsten lights when shooting in daylight to illuminate shadows, blue filter material can be used to raise their color temperature from 3200 degrees K (tungsten) to around 5600 degrees K (daylight). Conversely, if daylight is illuminating a room in which you are using quartz or tungsten lamps, a large sheet of amber-orange filter can be stretched over the window to reduce the effective color temperature of the daylight to match the interior lighting (Figure 11.7).

FIGURE 11.7
Gels (filters) can be placed over lights in order to color-correct a scene. (Photo courtesy of Litepanels)

Cameras are usually balanced for the dominant light source in the scene. However, different light sources have different qualities. Tungsten-halogen lamps (quartz lights) usually are at 3200 degrees K, and tungsten lamps can have a noticeably lower color temperature of around 3000 degrees K. High-powered HMI (hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide) lamps produce light of 5600 degrees K, which blends well with daylight but does not mix with that of tungsten sources.

Another issue is that as tungsten and quartz lamps are dimmed, their color temperature can change the light lacks blue, and develops a “warmer” yellowish-red quality.

Light Dispersion

FLOOD LIGHT

Flood light, also known as soft light, is the scattered, diffused, shadowless illumination that in nature comes from a cloudy overcast sky, and is reflected from rough surfaces of all kinds (walls, sand, snow). You can create soft light artificially by using the following:

 Large-area light fittings (e.g., multilamp banks; Figure 11.8)

 Diffusion material in front of light sources (Figure 11.9)

 Internal reflection light (Figures 11.10 and 11.11)

 Light bounced from large white surfaces (e.g., matte reflector boards, white ceiling)

FIGURE 11.8
Multilamp bank. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.9
Diffusion material can be placed in front of a light in order to create a softer light. Lights can also be aimed at a white ceiling in order to bounce light onto a scene.

FIGURE 11.10
Weighing three pounds, the LED (light-emitting diode) light panel projects a bright soft light. It is extremely lightweight, offers low power consumption, provides accurate color reproduction, is heat-free, and can be dimmed. (Photo courtesy of Litepanels)

FIGURE 11.11
The LitePad is nicknamed the “Everywhere Light.” At 1/3-inch (2.5-cm) thick, it can be placed anywhere to add a little soft light. (Photos courtesy of Rosco)

Flood lights include scoops, broads, flood light, banks, internally reflected units, strip lights, and cyclorama lights. They are used mainly for fill light and for broad lighting of backgrounds. They can be hung, supported on light stands, or rested on the ground.

Adjustment of soft light sources is limited. Egg-crate shields and barn doors are usually used to restrict the coverage to some extent. Otherwise, diffusers or dimmers are used to control their light intensity (Figure 11.12).

FIGURE 11.12
Egg-crate shields can be used to restrict the light coverage—to a certain extent. (Photo courtesy of Westcott)

Soft lights are usually used to:

 Illuminate shadows without creating additional shadows

 Avoid emphasizing modeling and texture

However, soft light does have practical disadvantages:

 Really diffused light can be difficult to control, because it spreads around and is not easy to restrict.

 Badly used soft light can produce flat unmodeled illumination. Texture and form can be difficult to see in the picture. If used as an overall baselight, it can reduce the impression of depth, over-light the walls of settings, destroy atmosphere, and produce flat, uninteresting pictures.

SPOTLIGHTS

A spotlight is a directional or hard illumination that produces sharp shadows. This type of light comes from any concentrated light source, such as the sun or a spotlight (Figure 11.13). Spotlights produce well-defined shadows and are used to:

 Create well-defined modeling

 Cast pronounced shadows (e.g., tree-branch shadows)

 Localize light to specific areas

 Produce coarse shading or an abrupt brightness fall-off

 Project light over some distance at a reasonably constant intensity; the light from focused spotlights does not “fall off” quickly with distance

FIGURE 11.13
Spotlights provide distinct shadows. This fresnel is a nondefined spotlight. It is lightweight, less expensive than an ellipsoidal, and has an adjustable beam. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

Spotlights are generally used as key lights, as back lights, as background/set lighting, and for effects (sunlight, broad decorative patterns, dapples). The light spread of the spotlight’s beam is adjustable and can be focused. Ideally, the beam intensity should remain even overall as the beam width is altered However, many designs do develop hot spots or “dark centers.” A couple of specialty types of spotlights include:

Effects/pattern projectors: These spotlights, which include the ellipsoidal spotlight, can project patterns on the set or scene to simulate windows, branches, and so on.

Follow spots: Used for isolating static subjects or following moving performers (singers, skaters, dancers) in a confined pool of light. These large spotlights are carefully balanced for continuous accurate handling and are usually mounted on a stand.

However, spotlights do have some practical disadvantages:

 The shadows from a spotlight may prove to be unattractive, inappropriate, or even distracting.

 Spotlights can over-emphasize texture and surface modeling.

 High contrast lighting can produce harsh, unsubtle tones.

 Multiple shadows arise when the subject is lit by more than one hard light source.

Clearly, for effective lighting treatment, you need a suitable blend of spotlights and soft diffused light. Usually the spotlight reveals the subject’s contours and textures, and the soft light reduces undue contrast or harshness and makes shadow detail visible. You may deliberately emphasize contour and texture, or minimize them, depending on the blend and direction of the illumination.

FIGURE 11.14
Three-point lighting is also known as triangle lighting or photographic lighting. Three lights are used to create the lighting treatment: the key, fill, and back lights. (Photo by Josh Taber)

The Direction of the Light

The effects of lighting will vary as you alter the angle at which it strikes the subject. Raising or lowering a lamp, or moving it round the subject, will change which parts are lit and which are thrown into shadow. It will affect how contours and texture are reproduced. Surface markings and decoration become more or less obvious. If you reposition the light, or alter the camera’s viewpoint, the appearance of various features of the subject can change.

Three-Point Lighting

Three-point lighting, also known as triangle or photographic lighting, utilizes both directional and diffused lighting to obtain the best results (Figure 11.14).

The main light, or key light, is positioned slightly above and to one side of the camera. This is normally a spotlight and it reveals the shape and surface features of the subject. The key light produces distinct, harsh shadows.

The fill light is a flood light that is placed on the opposite side of the camera from the key light. It reduces the shadows (made by the key light) but should not eliminate them. The fill light also reduces the lighting contrast. The more the key light is offset, the more important this soft fill light (also known as filler or fill-in) becomes. If the key is nearly frontal, you may not need fill light at all. Note that in the subject’s image in Figure 11.14, the shadows on her face have not been eliminated. This helps give the face texture and shape.

Finally, a back light is angled down onto the subject from behind to give some separation between the subject and the background. The back light emphases the shape of the subject.

The key light and back light are generally the same intensity. However, the back light may need to be reduced due to light hair color. The fill light is usually one-half or three-quarters the intensity of the key light and back light.

Wherever possible, additional lights can be used to illuminate the background behind the subject. But where space or facilities are limited, spill illumination from the key lights and fill lights may be used to cover the background areas.

Basic Guidelines for Lighting People

There are a number of generally accepted guidelines when lighting people:

 Place the key light within about 10 to 30 degrees of a person’s nose direction.

 Avoid steep lighting (above 40–45 degrees).

 Avoid a very wide horizontal or vertical angle between the fill light and the key light.

 Do not have more than one key light for each viewpoint.

 Use properly placed soft light to fill shadows.

FIGURE 11.15
Lights can be shared when practical. In this illustration, one spotlight is used as a key light for subject 1 and a back light for subject 2. The second spotlight is used as the key light for subject 2 and the back light for subject 1.

Lighting Groups of People

Check the direction in which each person is looking, and arrange their key/back/fill lights to fit. One appropriate lamp may suit a whole group, but problems can arise if there are big differences in the relative tones of their clothing, skin, and hair. Light intensity may be too strong for one, yet too weak for another. In such situations, localize the light reductions with diffusers or shading light off with a barn door or flag.

Where subjects are close, or you have few lamps, one light may have to serve two different purposes, such as a key light for one and a back light for someone else (Figure 11.15).

Where there are groups of people (audience, orchestra), you can either light them as a whole or in subdivided sections, still using three-point lighting principles and keeping overlaps to a minimum.

FIGURE 11.16
Sets can be lit with a series of three-point lighting setups.

Lighting Areas of the Scene

It is best to avoid flooding areas with light. The most attractive picture quality usually comes from analyzing the performance area into a series of locating points (by the table, at the door, looking out the window) and tailoring the three-point lighting at each to suit the action. One lighting arrangement will often suit other shots or action in that area (perhaps with slight light adjustments). Given sufficient lighting facilities (enough lights, dimmers, etc.) and adequate time to readjust lights, you could light to suit each individual shot. But such elaboration is not normally feasible. Where action is more general or widespread, you must cover the area in a systematic pattern of lamps (Figure 11.16).

LIGHT SOURCES

There are many different types of light sources. Each one can be used in different situations. Here are some of the most common:

Tungsten (or incandescent): The regular tungsten filament lamp is relatively cheap, has a reasonably long life, exists in a wide range of intensities (power ratings), is generally reliable, and can be mounted in many types of fittings. However, tungsten lamps waste much electrical energy as heat. Their typical color temperature is around 3000 to 3200 degrees K.

Quartz (tungsten–halogen): In these lamps, the tungsten filament is enclosed within a quartz or silica envelope filled with a halogen gas. This restricts the normal filament evaporation, providing a longer lamp life and/or a higher, more constant light output, of increased color temperature—around 3200 degrees K. The bulb must not be handled, as body acid attacks the surface, and the lamp becomes brittle and extremely hot in use (Figure 11.17).

HMI: The HMI is also known as a type of gas discharge lamp. These lamps are extremely efficient light sources, using a mercury arc ignited within argon gas. The HMI lights’ abilities result in near-daylight illumination (5600–6000 degrees K). The highly efficient HMI lamp is particularly convenient for use on location to fill shadows in exteriors and to light within large daylit interiors, because its color temperature blends well with daylight. It provides about three to five times as much light as a quartz light of equivalent power, while producing less heat. A single 2.5-kilowatt (kW) HMI lamp can give as much light as two color-corrected 10-kW tungsten lamps. The lights require auxiliary circuitry (ignitors and ballast units), and there is usually a 1.5- to 3-minute buildup time from switch-on (striking) to full light. Dimming methods are restricted and a lamp cannot usually be struck again quickly after switch-off, which is a disadvantage for “shoot-and-run” productions (documentaries, ENG; See Figure 11.18).

Fluorescent tubes: The traditional tubular fluorescent lamp consists of a sealed gas-filled glass tube with a phosphor-coated inner surface. When switched on, the mercury vapor within the tube ionizes, causing the phosphor coating to glow brightly (fluoresce); the color depends on the specific materials used. The fluorescent lamp is three to four times more efficient than a tungsten source (more light per watt), so power consumption is correspondingly lower for the same light intensity. There is little radiant heat in the light beam. (Half of the power used by tungsten light sources may be wasted as heat!) Because fluorescent lights provide a broad light source, the illumination is relatively soft and easier on the eyes than intense spotlights. Fluorescent tubes have a relatively long life.

FIGURE 11.17
Quartz light.

FIGURE 11.18
HMI lights have an extremely high light output. This HMI is being used to simulate daylight coming through a window. Note that it must be attached to a ballast unit (on right), which makes it quite bulky.

However, the lights can be somewhat bulky and rather fragile. The main shortcoming of this type of source lies in the light spread, for even with shutters and grilles (egg-crates, louvers), it is not easy to direct or confine light and avoid spill or over-lit backgrounds (Figure 11.19).

LED: LED lighting instruments are the newest addition to television lighting. They are made up of a series of LED lights, available as a flood light or spotlight. Although they are not the brightest lights, they are extremely energy efficient (cool to the touch), lightweight, and durable. Some LED lights can be powered by a camera battery when needed. These lights generally have a knob that allows the light intensity to be easily adjusted (Figure 11.10).

LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS

Camera Light

A small portable light can be attached to the top of a video camera. These camera lights are generally powered by an AC adapter, an exterior battery pack, or the camera’s battery.

Its main advantage is that it always illuminates whatever the camera is shooting, and does not require another pair of hands. Portable lighting of this sort can provide a very convenient key light when shooting under difficult conditions, especially when following someone around. The light can also provide modeling light for close exterior shots on a dull day, or fill light for hard shadows when shooting someone in sunlight.

The disadvantages of these lights is that they add to the camera’s overall weight, and their light is extremely frontal and thus tends to flatten out the subject. This light will reflect in glasses and shiny surfaces near the subject as an intense white blob. People facing the camera may also find the light dazzling.

Some camera lights have fixed coverage; others are adjustable. The illumination is invariably localized, and when using a wide-angle camera lens, subjects may move out of its light beam. Another problem is that the illumination may not really be appropriate for the scene. Though anything near the camera is easily over-lit, anything farther away remains virtually unlit, which can be very obvious in long shots. Some camera light systems even have an autosensor intensity control, which nominally adjusts their intensity to match exposure to the prevailing lighting conditions. Like all automatic systems, its performance is variable (Figures 11.20 and 11.21).

FIGURE 11.19
Fluorescent lights provide a broad light source. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.20
On-camera lights can draw their power from an external battery pack, the camera’s battery, or an AC power supply. (Photo courtesy of Grass Valley/Thomson)

FIGURE 11.21
This LED 6000 K energy-efficient on-camera ring light is designed to provide an overall shadowless shot or can utilize individual sections of the ring. (Photo courtesy of VF Gadgets)

Fresnel Spotlights

In television studios, where the lights have to be positioned a fair distance from the subjects, the large heavy-duty fresnel spotlight is universal, suspended from ceiling bars or battens. It is lighter than the other studio spotlight (the ellipsoidal), sometimes has an adjustable beam, and provides an unfocused spotlight beam. The fresnel is probably used more in studios than any other light (Figure 11.13).

Ellipsoidal Spotlights

The ellipsoidal light is a sharply focused spotlight. The focusing ability allows it to project patterns on the set. It is heavier, includes internal shutters (like barn doors), is more expensive than other spotlights, and has an adjustable beam (Figure 11.22).

Scoop

The scoop is an inexpensive and simple light instrument, requiring little maintenance and working well when a flood light (fill) is required. However, it can be inefficient and bulky. Unfortunately, the light from the scoop spreads uncontrollably, spilling around over nearby scenery (Figure 11.23).

Broad Light

The lightweight broad light (also known as a V-light or broadside) has a short trough containing a reflector and a tubular quartz light of usually 500 to 1000 W. The bulb may have a frontal shield to internally reflect the light. Although the broad is widely referred to as a soft light source, due to its small area, it produces quite discernible shadows. Nevertheless, it is an extremely useful wide-angle broad light source that can be hung conveniently in various ways, supported on stands, or laid on the floor.

Two-leaf or four-leaf barn door shutters that can be closed to reduce the spread of the light are often fitted to broads (Figure 11.24).

FIGURE 11.22
The ellipsoidal light is a sharply focused spotlight. Its focusing ability allows it to project patterns on the set. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.23
The scoop is a simple flood light. It is inexpensive, usually not adjustable, lightweight, and does not have a sharp outline. The scoop works well as a fill light and is great for lighting large areas on a set. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.24
The V-light, or broad light, is a very compact light source. This powerful light source can be used as a key or fill and folds small enough to fit into a camera case. (Photo courtesy of Lowell)

Soft Light

Soft lights are available in two primary types: the studio soft light and the portable soft light. Soft lights generally utilize a central lamp that is reflected off of the back of the lighting instrument. Although this device spreads its illumination uncontrollably, it is a very handy lighting tool (Figure 11.25).

The portable soft light is designed to be carried easily into the field, but is still often used in the studio. It provides a large amount of soft light. The portable soft light is available in different models. Some of these diffusion attachments fit on standard lights; others can be purchased with special lighting instruments (Figure 11.26).

Cyclorama Light

Cyclorama lights, or “cyc” lights, are used to illuminate backgrounds with broad lighting. There are basically two types of cyc lights:

 The floor light, also known as a cyclorama light or strip light, that are used to light backgrounds from the floor up (Figure 11.27)

 A hanging cyc light that projects a consistent broad light down on the background (Figure 11.28)

FIGURE 11.25
Studio soft light. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.26
The portable soft light is lightweight, may work with existing lighting instruments, and provides a large level of soft light. (Photos by Mole-Richardson and Taylor Vincent)

FIGURE 11.27
Strip lights or cyc lights are used primarily to light sets from the floor up. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.28
The hanging cyclorama light illuminates the background from the light grid.

Multilamp Sources

Several soft light sources use groups of lamps, which combine so that the shadows cast by each are “lit out” by its neighboring lights.

A strip light or cyc light consists of a row of light units joined in a long trough. Each unit has a bulb with a curved metal reflector. The strip light can be used to illuminate backgrounds or translucent screens from the floor. In a studio, strip or eye lights are often suspended to light backgrounds from above (Figure 11.27).

Multilamp banks are excellent soft light sources. A typical design has multiple panels of grouped internal reflector lamps. Each panel can usually be independently switched and turned to adjust the brightness and spread of the unit. The flood light bank is mainly used as a booster light for exteriors and for large-area illumination. Large side-flaps may be fitted to restrict the light spread (Figure 11.8).

Soft light sources that rely on internal reflection to produce light scatter produce quite diffused light, but are relatively inefficient.

Large units fitted with a bank of fluorescent tubes are favored by some people as an inexpensive soft light source. Although these lights can be a bit fragile in use, one of their main advantages is that they produce little to no heat, use much less energy than a normal television light, and put out a large amount of light (Figure 11.19).

FIGURE 11.29
This open-face adjustable light unit can be used as a spot or flood light. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

Open-Face Adjustable Light

The open-face adjustable light is widely used in the field. It has a variety of names, including lensless spotlight, open-bulb spot, external reflector spot, and reflector spotlight. This light has many advantages. It is extremely portable, compact, and efficient. Diffuser and/or corrective color gels are easily clipped to its barn doors (Figure 11.29).

Reflectors

The easiest and least-expensive way to improve a subject’s lighting when shooting in sunlight is to use a reflector. This is simply a surface such as a board, screen, cloth, or even a wall that reflects existing light onto the subject from another angle. The quality of the reflected light depends on the surface you use.

There are many commercial reflectors available, such as the ones shown in Figures 11.30 and 11.31. These lightweight cloth reflectors, sewn onto a spring-metal frame, can be easily folded and transported. Available surfaces include silver, gold, white, and combination reflectors. A mirrored surface, such as metal foil, will reflect a distinct beam of light from a hard light source, creating sharp, well-defined shadows. This light travels well, even when the subject is some distance away. (A mirrored surface will even reflect soft light to some extent, if placed fairly near the subject.) The angle of a mirror-finish reflector can be critical. When the light shines directly at its surface, the maximum effect is obtained. However, as the surface is angled toward the light, the reflected beam, which covers only a restricted angle anyway, narrows and becomes less effective. In a long shot, its limited coverage is seen as a localized patch of light.

FIGURE 11.30
Commercially produced cloth reflectors can be purchased that have a variety of colors. This specific reflector is designed with six different colors, for six different lighting effects. (Photo courtesy of Wescott)

FIGURE 11.31
An umbrella reflector can be attached to a light source in order to create a soft lighting instrument. (Photo by Josh Taber)

If the reflector has a matte-white surface, it will produce a soft diffused light, which spreads over a wide angle. But this soft reflected light is much weaker, and will travel only a relatively short distance, which depends on the intensity and distance of the original light source.

Reflectors can be easily made from a board covered with aluminum foil (smooth or crumpled and flattened) or matte-white painted, according to the type of light reflection required. (A board with a different surface on each side can be very useful.) These “boards” can be made of wood, foam core (which is extremely lightweight), or cardboard. The bigger the reflector, the more light that will be reflected over a broad area. Even a large cloth can be used. However, cloth reflectors of this size can be cumbersome to hang and are likely to blow in the wind if outdoors. Since the only alternative is to use powerful lamps, or lights close in to the subject, it is certainly worth trying reflectors, when the sun’s direction is appropriate.

Indoors, reflectors can be used to redirect light from windows or spotlights into shadowy corners. When using back light, a low reflector can be used near the camera to reduce the shadows under people’s chins and eyebrows (Figure 11.32).

LIGHT SUPPORTS

Grip Clamps

There are a number of different clamps or grips available on the market to hold lights on location or in the studio. All of them include mounting spuds where lights can be attached. These clamps clip a light to any firmly based object, such as a door, table, chair, rail, post, window, or ladder. In the studio, they can also be clamped to a light stand and set flat. These clamps can be very useful compact devices to secure lamps in out-of-the-way places, especially when space is restricted (Figure 11.33).

FIGURE 11.33
Furniture clamps and gator clamps are used to attach a light to anything around the shooting location. (Photos courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

Light Stands

Light stands come in all different sizes and shapes and are generally telescopic three-legged stands. They can be collapsed, folded, and/or dismantled into sections for transport. The size of the light will determine how sturdy the light stand needs to be. If the stand is too flimsy, it will be top-heavy and easily upset, even by the weight of the light’s cable. With more robust types of stands, two or more lights can be attached to a stand when necessary.

Light stands have the disadvantages of occupying valuable floor space (perhaps impeding camera or sound-boom movement), casting shadows onto backgrounds, having trailing cables, and being vulnerable. But they do permit easily adjusted precision lighting (Figure 11.34).

In fact, most television lighting is suspended, to leave floor space uncluttered by lamps or cables.

Studio Ceiling Supports

Smaller studios and temporary sets in larger studios frequently use pipes to hang the lights on in the studio. These pipes enable lamps to be clamped or suspended as required (Figure 11.35).

Large studios frequently use “battens,” “bars,” or “barrels” arranged in a parallel pattern over the studio area, and individual battens may be counterbalanced by wall weights or motor winches to allow lamps to be rigged. Battens are usually a type of hanging bar that allows the lights to be hung and then plugged directly into the batten.

FIGURE 11.34
Light stands can be collapsed and folded into a compact size for storage and transport. (Photo by Josh Taber)

FIGURE 11.35
Pipes are often used on sets to hang lights from.

Lighting grids or catwalks allow the lighting crew to walk around the lighting located at the ceiling (Figure 11.36).

Portable Light Kits

Portable light kits are available for the remote production crew. These kits usually come in two to four light packages, which include lighting instruments, light stands, power cables, barn doors, and so on. There are a wide variety of kits available from different vendors (Figure 11.37).

CONTROLLING THE LIGHTS

Lights can be controlled in a number of ways, including dimmer boards, cookies, filters, diffusers, barn doors, and flags. Each of these types of controllers can be used for different purposes, based on where the shoot is taking place, the equipment available, and the skills of the person doing the lighting.

Dimmer board: There are many different styles of dimmer boards, from fairly inexpensive simple manual fader boards to highly technical computer-driven boards (Figure 11.38). These systems are extremely adaptable and can be suitable for portability. Faders (control levers) and channel switchers are grouped on a lighting board (console), remotely controlling the lights. Intensity adjustments are smooth and proportional over their range, even for varying electrical loads. Generally, the lights are attached to dimmer units, which are controlled by the dimmer board.

Barn doors: Barn doors have independently adjustable flaps (two or four) on a rotatable frame; these selectively cut off light beams. They are used to restrict light, shade walls, and prevent back light from shining into the camera lens (causing lens flares). Barn doors are attached to the front of the lighting instrument and are most commonly used to control where the light falls on the scene (Figures 11.39 and 11.35).

Flags: Flags are often used to control spill light from light sources. Flags are generally made of cloth that is stretched over a metal frame. The flags are usually mounted on a light stand placed in front of the light source (Figure 11.40). Flags can also be constructed by using any material that can block the light.

FIGURE 11.36
Lighting grids allow lighting personnel to walk on the same level as the lighting instruments. Lights can also be hung below the grid.

FIGURE 11.37
Many different types of portable light kits are available. (Photo courtesy of Mole-Richardson)

FIGURE 11.38
Dimmer boards are available in a variety of styles, from simple manual fader boards to highly sophisticated computer-driven units. (Photos courtesy of Strand)

FIGURE 11.39
Barn doors.

FIGURE 11.40
Flags are available individually or in kits such as the one shown here. Generally, flags are mounted on light stands. (Photos courtesy of Wescott)

FIGURE 11.41
Color filters, also called gels, are used to create effects or balance the color of the light falling on the scene. The gel is placed in the metal frame and slid into a holder in the light.

FIGURE 11.42
A sheet from a catalog of cookies.

Light filters/gels: Color gels (filters) can be placed over lights to enhance the color of the light. They are added to create special effects or control the type of light falling on the subject. Note the filter being used in Figure 11.7. Gels are usually placed into gel holders and then placed onto the light (Figure 11.41).

Diffuser: Diffusers consist of some type of a translucent material (wire mesh, frosted plastic, or spun-glass sheet). They diffuse light (overall or locally) and reduce the intensity (Figure 11.9).

Cookies/gobos: Cookies (or gobos) are perforated opaque or translucent sheets that create dappling, shadows, light break-up, or patterns that can be projected onto a set by a spotlight. Cookies can be inserted onto the front of some spotlights (Figure 11.42).

BASIC LIGHTING PLAN

Before lighting any production, a number of preliminary questions should be answered. Whether you get these answers at a preproduction meeting with the director, set designer, or audio engineer, or from a chat in the studio while looking around the set will depend on the size and type of the production.

What Is Going to Happen?

The subject: The main subjects in most programs are people. Even for a single person speaking to the camera, or a seated interview, you must know where people are going to be positioned and the directions they will be facing. You will need details of the action. The answers will decide where you place key lights. If keys are badly angled, it can considerably affect portraiture. All subjects tend to have optimum directions for the main light direction.

The cameras: Where are the cameras going to be located? Lighting must suit the camera’s position. If the subject is to be shot from several positions, the lighting has to take this into account. However, that does not mean flooding light onto the set from all directions.

The surroundings: You will need to know about the general tones of the surroundings. Are they light-toned (then they could easily become overly bright) or dark-toned (in which case more light may be needed to prevent lower tones from becoming detail-free shadows)? Will the subjects stand out from their background or tend to merge with it?

Atmosphere: Are you aiming at a specific atmospheric effect (upbeat, cozy evening interior, intriguing mystery, etc.)? The answer to this question will influence how the light and shade are distributed in the scene.

Production mechanics: These include such things as:

 Sound-boom positions to avoid casting shadows that will be seen in the shot

 Lighting cues such as someone apparently switching room lights on

 Lighting effects, which include effects such as a fire flicker, lightning, moonlight, and so on

There will be times when you have to light a setting without knowing any of these details. In those circumstances, you can provide only a general pattern of lighting and check the images during the rehearsal to see where changes will be needed to improve the situation. Results under these conditions can be unpredictable.

The Lighting Plot

Most people find the basics of lighting easy enough to understand, but are very apprehensive when it comes to the actual lighting process. How do you begin? Creating a lighting plot will help you think through your lighting plan. An accurate lighting plot will enable you to immediately identify every lamp during rehearsal. Without a plot, you will be left wondering which lamp is causing the boom shadow, or why there is a hot spot on the set. Work systematically through the project step by step. Break the set into different areas, analyzing where the action is going to take place, and place the lights as needed (usually a type of triangle lighting; Figure 11.43). Table 11.1 lists the types of questions that need to be considered when placing lights on the light plot.

Lamp Care and Safety

 Avoid moving hot lights when they are lit. Filaments are very fragile when hot.

 Use gloves when handling hot lamps. Never touch quartz lamps or HMI bulbs with a bare hand (body acids destroy the envelope).

 Allow plenty of ventilation around lamps to avoid over-heating. (Drapes, cloths, and other scenery can burn if they are too close to lamps.) If you place diffuser material or color medium too close to a fresnel lens you may crack the lens, so always use proper holders.

 Beware of over-balancing floor stands! Weigh the bottoms (weights, sandbags). Secure cables to prevent accidents.

 Always utilize safety chains or wires to secure all hanging lamps and accessories in case they fall.

 Switch off lamps whenever possible to reduce heat, lengthen lamp life, and minimize power costs.

FIGURE 11.43
This lighting plot was created for NBC’s studio at the Olympics. (Courtesy of Lighting Design Group)

Lighting and Camera Rehearsal

The camera rehearsal is the moment of truth. Now you can see the results of your labors. Keep an eye on all preview monitors and look out for lighting defects, such as distracting shadows, hot spots, unsatisfactory contrast, wrong light direction, unattractive portraiture, boom shadows, and the like. If possible, readjust dimmers to improve the lighting balance directly as you see inaccuracies; rebalancing could affect all subsequent shots.

The director will also be arranging and readjusting shots. Many shots will be as expected; some may be quite different and could require total relighting. Whether you correct lighting problems as they arise (and miss continuing rehearsal pictures while doing so) or list them to be corrected during a break depends on the circumstances. It is reasonable to quietly adjust a barn door with a lighting pole during rehearsal, but diffusers and gels or hanging lamps cannot be changed unobtrusively.

Sound Boom Shadows

Shot anticipation and coordination are necessary to prevent boom shadows from falling across people and backgrounds. The normal trick is to throw the inevitable shadow out of the shot by careful key light positioning. Obviously, difficulties arise when this lamp position is artistically incompatible (Figure 11.44).

FIGURE 11.44
Sound boom shadows can be a challenge on a set.

Lighting on Location

When you are shooting away from the studio, you will encounter a wide range of lighting conditions:

Day exteriors: These vary from overcast skies to strong blinding sunlight with deep shadows.

Night exteriors: Anything from pitch-black night to strong moonlight; from the odd street lamp to “bright-as-day” surroundings.

Day interiors: These can range from locations where sunlight through windows embarrassingly overwhelms any interior lighting to those where you need to provide a high-power lamp to simulate sunlight on a dull day!

Night interiors: Conditions here can vary considerably, from total darkness to an extensively lit environment. Sometimes the interior lighting is quite unsuitable for the camera and must be switched off.

In Table 11.2, you will find a useful summary of typical equipment and techniques that you can use when lighting on location.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are three of the goals of lighting?

2. What is the advantage of a zebra system?

3. How are spotlights used in productions?

4. Describe how to set up three-point lighting.

5. How can a portable reflector be used in lighting a person?

6. What are two of the issues that need to be considered when doing a basic lighting plan?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: TOMMY BROWN

Why do you like working with lighting? I am passionate about lighting because it is fun for me and I enjoy the challenges of it. When you see what is being accomplished with your light, you feel you are really contributing to the project. I must confess that sometimes it’s a little like Christmas morning getting to plug things in and have them work! It’s not that I’m surprised when a light comes on, it’s that I take great pride in doing the job right.

What makes good lighting? Experience! Experience! Experience! Knowing what works and what doesn’t will save you when there’s limited time for lighting. Especially when someone needs that light yesterday! Preproduction is essential. Sitting down with the DP in advance to get his or her vision makes all the difference in the world. Like acting, lighting can make or break your production. You can have the best script in the world, but if your actors aren’t doing their job, good luck getting the project to see the light of day. The same goes for lighting. You can have a vast array of lights at your fingertips, but if you don’t know how to use them you are never going to move beyond the student film level.

What are some of the challenges of lighting? Many times the biggest challenge is getting power from one location to another. It can be very difficult to stay attentive, and not get distracted, so that you know what is needed. Lighting instruments change. It is tough to quickly learn new lights.

FIGURE 11.45
Tommy Brown, Lighting Engineer.

Tommy Brown has worked on the lighting of corporate videos, network television, and feature films.