Index
Abbreviated input, 266
Abbreviation expansion, 291
character formation, 230–231
script inventory, 228–230
implementation issues, 233
deletion, 235
input sequence, 234
keyboard layout, 234
number of characters, 233
selection of characters, 234
phonological inventory, 229
character sets, 232
orthographic syllable, 232–233
zero-width characters, 233
Acoustic model, 162
Adaptive language models, 38–43
offline adaptation, 38
online adaptation, 38
Adjusted words per minute (AdjWPM), 49–50
experience and learning, 275–276
muscle function, 272–273
social factors, 274–275
vision, 273–274
Aggregate text entry measures, 48
efficiency measures, 57–60
entry rates, 48–52
error rates, 52–56
AKKO system, 114
characteristics, 196
non-Roman scripts, 199–201
Roman scripts, with diacritics, 197–199
AlphaSmart, 282
for computer, 11–13
for handheld computers, 21–22
for mobile phones, 16–17
for typewriter, 7–10
Ambiguity, 143–144
Ambiguous keyboards, 105
characteristic measures, 109–111
entry by completion, 117–119
evaluating keyboards, 115–117
and entry methods, 107–109
variants, 111–114
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 91–92
API (application programming interface), 315
character encodings, 257–258
computer-aided entry, 265–266
entry, on mobile devices, 262–265
and Hebrew scripts, differences, 255
overall process, 260–262
standard keyboards, 258–260
Augmentative and alternative communication (ACC) system, 296–297
B
Back-off methods, 34
Balinese, 228
Basic model, of text entry, 28–31
Batak, 228
Baybayin, 228
BELS, 281
vs within-subjects design, 90
Braille input, 306–307
Brain Actuated Technologies, Inc., 296
Brain–computer interface, 295
BrainGate, 296
Buginese, 228
Burmese, 228n
Button error, 87
C
Cantillation marks, 254n
Capture error, 67
Catalan, 197
Cellular phones, See Mobile phones
Cepstral coefficient, 163
Cepstrum, 163
Cham, 228
Character encodings, 205
Arabic, 257
Chinese, 218
Hebrew, 257–258
Japanese, 207
Korean, 209
Character-level measures, 60
corrected errors, in input streams, 63–65
intra- and intercharacter time, 61–62
uncorrected errors, in transcribed strings, 62–63
Character segmentation, 129
pre-recognition method, 129–130
stroke code method, 130
Characters per second (CPS), 49
Cherokee, 193
case study, 284–286
guidelines, 283–284
muscle function, 272–273
research studies, 280–281
social factors, 274–275
text input technologies, 281–283
vision, 273–274
zi, 154n
Chording keyboard, 12–13
Chunjiin Hangeul, 211
Chunk error rate, 56
Chunking, 147
CIC Corp., 109
Classic in-place date stamp method, 69
Comorian, 196
Compansion system, 291
Comparative evaluation, of text entry techniques, 78
data collection and display, 82–83
evaluation task, 80–82
preexperimental testing, 79–80
Completion method, 214
Computer-aided entry, 265–266
Confounding variable, 89
Consumer text entry technologies, 3
handheld computers, 17–22
mobile phones, 1990s to present, 14–17
personal computer, 1980s to present, 10–13
typewriter, 1870s to 1980s, 4–10
Continuous gaze gestures, 180–181
Continuous word scoring, 169–170
accuracy, 170
Control variable, 89
Corpus perplexity, See Test-set perplexity
Corrected-and-wrong, 63–64
Corrected-but-right, 63–64
Corrected error rate, 55
Corrected insertions, 64
Corrected omissions, 64–65
Corrected substitutions, 64
Correction efficiency, 58–59
Correctness, 169
Cost per correction (CPC), 59–60
Counterbalancing, 90–91
Cree, 193
Cumulative error rate, 56
Cyberlink Brainfingers, 296
Czech, 198
DARPA-sponsored project, 160
Data-sparseness problem, See Zero-frequency problem
Dependent variables, 87–88
inscript keyboard, 236
on mobile phone, 238–239
Diagonal elements, 169
Dictation system, 164
and difficulties, 164–165
objective evaluation, 170
Digitizer equipment, 128
DioPen, 221
Direct gaze pointing, 176–178
Direct selection-based methods, 68
Discounting methods, 34
for computer, 10–11
for handheld computers, 18–21
for mobile phones, 15–16
for typewriter, 6–7
Double-keyboard typewriter, 8–9
Doubling error, 67
Dynabook, 17
Dynamic selection interface, 311–312
Dynamic writing variation, 130
E
description, 204
Chinese, 205–206
Japanese, 206–208
Korean, 208–209
for nonnatives, 222–223
nonpredictive methods, 209–211
PDAs, 220–222
phonetics-based predictive entry method, 212
phrase-based entry, 216–217
word-based entry, 213–216
shape-based predictive entry method, 217–219
correction efficiency, 58–59
cost per correction (CPC), 59–60
KSPC characteristic measure, 57–58
participant conscientiousness, 59
utilized bandwidth, 59
wasted bandwidth, 59
Effy-CJK, 221
experience and learning, 275–276
guidelines, 279
muscle function, 272–273
research studies, 276–277
social factors, 274–275
technologies, 277–279
vision, 273–274
English handwriting, 123
case study, 134–135
commercial online systems, 134
fundamental property, 124–125
offline handwriting recognition, 125–126
online handwriting recognition, 126–131
recognition difficulties, 125
shorthand, 131–134
styles, for computer input, 124
Enron e-mail corpus, 142
Entropy of language model per word, 167
adjusted words per minute (AdjWPM), 49–50
gestures per second (GPS), 51
keystrokes per second (KSPS), 50–51
learning curves, 52
words per minute (WPM), 48–49
Ergonomic keyboards, 292
in speech-to-text method, 12
chunk error rate, 56
cumulative error rate, 56
gestures per character (GPC), 53
keystrokes per character (KSPC), 52–53
minimum string distance (MSD), 53–55
Escape probability, 41–42
Estonian, 197
EUC-KR, 209
Evaluation task, in text entry techniques, 80–82
Experiment design, in text entry techniques, 83
confounding variable, 89
control variable, 89
counterbalancing, 90–91
participants, 85
procedure, 86
random variable, 89
testing research questions, 91–93
within-subjects vs between-subjects designs, 90
Eye-Switch Controlled Communication Aids, 179
EZ Hangeul entry system, 211
F
Fictitious alphabetic keyboard, 106
Five-stroke method, 218–219
Focus of attention (FOA), 80–81
FOKS system, 222
Four-corner method, 218
case studies and guidelines, 181–184
continuous gaze gestures, 180–181
direct gaze pointing, 176–178
eye switches and gaze gestures, 179–180
German, 197
Gesture-based input methods, 22
GNOME Accessibility API, 315
Good – Turing method, 34
GOTTHAI, 245
GSM phones, 14
for children’s text input, 283–284
of efficient text entry, 151–155
for elderly text input, 279
for eye gaze, 181
for visually impaired users, 313–316
H
alternative virtual keyboards, 21
gesture-based input, 22
handwriting recognition, 18–19
dominant text entry methods, 18–21
IQuest PDA, for children, 283
physical mini-keyboards, 20–21
virtual Qwerty keyboard, 20
English language, 123
Chunjiin Hangeul, 211
EZ Hangeul entry system, 211
two-beolsik layout, 210
Hanja, 208
Hanzi, 205
Hebrew scripts, 252
and Arabic, differences, 252–256
character encodings, 257–258
computer-aided entry, 265–266
mobile devices, entry on, 262–265
overall process, 260–262
standard keyboards, 258–260
Hiragana, 309
Homologous error, 67
Human–computer dialogues, 160–161
Human–computer monologues, 161
Human-to-human dialogues, 159–160
Human-to-human monologues, 160
Hungarian, 197
Hypothetical single-key keyboard, 106
I
I4Control, 179
Ideogram, 203
for nonnatives, 222–223
for visually impaired users, 308–310
ILeap software, 235
Index typewriters, 7–8
on computers, 235
through English, 236
through Indian script, 236–237
mobile phones, 238–239
predictive input, 239–240
text output, 237–238
Indirect selection-based methods, 68–69
classic in-place date stamp method, 69
selection keyboard method, 69
Inherent accuracy, of Graffiti, 69–70
Input streams, corrected errors in, 63
corrected-and-wrong, 63–64
corrected-but-right, 63–64
corrected insertions, 64
corrected omissions, 64–65
corrected substitutions and confusion matrices, 64
Internal validity, 89
Intracharacter time, 61
IQuest palm device, 282–283
ISO-8859-8811, 241
ISO-8859-8856, 257
ISO-8859-8858, 258
ISO-8859-8858-I, 257–258
Isolated word scoring, 168–169
Japanese Industry Standard (JIS) organization, 207
Javanese, 228
Jaws, 308
Jot handwriting recognition system, 134
K
Kangxi Zidian, 206
Kansuke system, 223
Kashida, 254
Kashmiri, 227n
Key-ambiguity continuum, 106–107
12-key keyboard, in mobile phones, 15–16
for Arabic and Hebrew scripts, 258–260
BigKeys keyboard, 281
chording keyboard, 12–13
double keyboards, 8–9
Dvorak simplified keyboard, 9
ergonomic keyboard, 292
evaluation, 115–117
inscript keyboard, 236–237
response, 290–291
Russian standard keyboard, 200
specialized keyboard hardware, 292–293
Turkish standard keyboard, 198
two-handed chord, 293
typing, 66–67
usage, 290
Keyguard, 293
and ambiguity, for various keyboards, 115–117
drawbacks, 55
Khaithi, 227–228
KS X 1001, 209
kth-order Markov model, 32
L
L4K, 114
L6K, 114
Lampong, 228
adaptive models, 38–43
basic model, 28–31
hidden Markov model, 35–38
N-gram models, 32–35
inventions, to access computers, 307–308
keyboard and Braille input, 306–307
Letter-pair model, 57–58
Letters on one key, 114
Log file analysis, 65–66
Madurese, 228
Makassarese, 228
MALACH project, 160
Mandinka, 196
Marathi, 227
Marking menus, 148
hidden Markov model, 35–38
Matres lectionis, 254
Membrane keyboard, 293
Memorability, of Graffiti, 70
Method-specific measures, 66
keyboard typing, 66–67
selection-based methods, 68–69
stroke- or gesture-based methods, 69–70
Microsoft IME-Pad, 222
Minimum string distance (MSD), 53–55
error rate, 54
12-key keyboard, 15–16
1990s to present, 14–17
Arabic/Hebrew text entry, 262–265
Fastap keyboard, 16
in India, 238
keypad and entry methods, 107–109
keypad variants, 111–114
reduced Qwerty keyboard, 16–17
in Thailand, 244–246
Modi, 227–228
Move to front (MTF) model, 40–41
Movement-impaired people, text entry mechanism for, 289
AAC text input, 296–297
abbreviation expansion, 291
assistive input techniques, 290–292
case study, 298–299
keyboard response, 290–291
on-screen keyboards, 294–296
specialized keyboard hardware, 292–293
speech input, 294
standard keyboard, 290
word prediction, 291–292
MS-IME, 217
MSAA API, 315
Multichannel recognition, of shape writing, 143
in speech-to-text method, 11–12
Multiple dimensions and guidelines, 151–155
ease of entry and learning, 151–152
effortlessness, 152
fun and aesthetics, 153–155
high performance, 151
mobility, 152–153
Muscle function, 272–273
N
Nepali, 227
Nonnatives, ideogram entry system for, 222
phonetic-based method, 222–223
shape-based method, 223
Non-Roman scripts, 199–201
O
Off-diagonal elements, 169
One-handed chord keyboard, 293
digitizer equipment, 128
dynamic information, 126–128
recognition strategies, 128–131
OOV rate, 168
Open-loop behavior, 147
Optacon, 308
Optimal alignment pairs, 62–63
Out-of-lexicon input, 143–146
Papyrus Allegro alphabet, 133
Paragraph directionality, 262
Participant conscientiousness, 59
Participants, 85
dominant text entry methods, 18–21
IQuest PDA, for children, 283
See also Handheld computers
Pen-stroke gestures, 139
Performance measures, of text entry, 47
aggregate measures, 48–60
character-level measures, 60–65
discussion, 70–71
log files, measurements from, 65–66
method-specific measures, 66–70
Perso-Arabic script, 192
Personal computer, 1980s to present, 10
chording keyboards, 12–13
Qwerty keyboard, 10–11
speech-to-text, 11–12
phrase-based entry, 216–217
word-based entry, 213–216
Phonetic swap, 67
Phonogram, 203
PiePad, 87
Portuguese, 197
PPMA, 42
Prediction by partial match (PPM), 41–43
phonetic-based methods, 212–217
shape-based methods, 217–219
Preexperimental testing, in text entry techniques, 79–80
Pre-recognition method, 129–130
Problems, in text entry, 194–196
Psion organizer, 18
R
Random variable, 89
Recognition strategies, in online handwriting, 128–131
dynamic writing variation, 130
ideal recognition system, 131
segmentation, 129–130
Reduced Qwerty, 16–17
Remington Model 2 typewriters, 8
Repeated-measures design, 90
with diacritics, 197–199
ROT test, 78
Samaritan, 255
Sanskrit, 227
dynamic selection interface, 311–312
static selection interface, 311
direct, 68
indirect, 68–69
Semitic scripts, 193
Serbo-Croat, 192
ambiguity, 143–144
basic concept, 139–140
efficiency, 148–151
multiple dimensions and guidelines, 151–155
encoding modality, 146
error recovery, 144–146
information and constraints, 140–142
layout optimization, 149–151
out-of-lexicon input, 143
recognition, 142–143
tracing to direct shape writing, transition, 147–148
Shorthand, 123
alphabets, 131–133
for words and phrases, 134
Siddham, 228
Sindhi, 192
“Smith Premier 4” double-keyboard typewriter, 8
Smoothing methods, 34
SMS, See also Short Message Service
abugida, characteristics, 228–231
Indian script, 235–240
text entry issues, 231–235
Thai script, 240–246
Spanish, 197
classification, 166–167
dictation and spoken dialogue systems, 170–171
recognition performance, 168–170
speech recognition task difficulty, 167–168
subjective evaluation methods, 171
Speech-based interfaces, 159
dictation system and difficulties, 164–165
speech-based input systems, evaluation, 166–171
speech recognition principles, 161–164
speech recognition tasks, categories, 159–161
spoken dialogue systems and difficulties, 165–166
categories, 159
human–computer dialogues, 160–161
human–computer monologues, 161
human-to-human dialogues, 159–160
human-to-human monologues, 160
task-difficulty evaluation methods, 167–168
Speech-to-text systems, 11–12
error correction, 12
Spoken dialogue systems (SDSs), 165
and difficulties, 165–166
objective evaluation, 170–171
Standard 12-key telephone keypad, 107
Standard entry, 256
character encodings, 257–258
overall process, 260–262
standard keyboards, 258–260
Standard keyboard, alternatives to, 292
ergonomic keyboards, 292
keyguards, 293
membrane keyboards, 293
on-screen keyboard, 294–296
speech input, 294
State-of-the-art speech recognition system, 161
cepstrum, 163
hidden Markov models (HMMs), 163
statistical speech recognition, 163
structure, 162
Static selection interface, 311
Stroke- or gesture-based methods, 69
guessability, 70
immediate usability, 69–70
memorability, 70
Sundanese, 228
Syriac, 255
T
Tagalog, 228
Taggers, 38
Tatweel, 254
Template-based recognition, of shape writing, 142–143
Test vocabulary, 168
Text-creation task, 81
in India, 235–240
in Thailand, 240–246
Text entry techniques, 75
comparative evaluation, 78–83
experiment design, 83–93
learning, 93–97
Text Service Framework, 315
Thailand, text entry systems in, 240
on computers, 241
character sets, 241
editing rules, 241–243
keyboard layout, 241
word wrapping, 243–244
on mobile phones, 244
GOTTHAI, 245
TiltText, 87
TMK10, 215
TouchMe4Key, 114
Trackball EdgeWrite, 66
uncorrected errors in, 62–63
Transliteration, 236
with ASCII characters, 258n
Transposition error, 67
TTS (text to speech) capabilities, 315
Two-beolsik layout, 210–211
Two-stroke method, See T-code method
Typewriters, 1870s to 1980s, 4
double keyboards, 8–9
index typewriters, 7–8
optimized keyboard layout, 9–10
Qwerty keyboard, 6–7
Sholes–Glidden Type Writer, 4–5
Virtual keyboards, 20
alternatives, 21–22
Virtual Typewriter Museum, 8
Vision, of adults and children, 273–274
VisionKey, 179–180
Visually impaired people, text entry for, 305
design guidelines, 313–316
ideographic characters, 308–310
latin alphabets, 306–308
selection-based interfaces, 311–313
W
Wang, Yongmin, 218
Wang, Yunwu, 218
WanNengMa Input System, 222
Wasted bandwidth, 59
Windows-1255, 258
Windows-1256, 257
vs between-subjects design, 90
Word prediction, 291–292
Word wrapping, 243–244
Writing system, 3
types, 193–194
alphabetic scripts, 196–201
text entry problems, 194–196
Wubi method, 218
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