Chapter 6

Using Syntactic Cues

Introduction

6.1 Don’t use a telegraphic writing style

6.2 In a series of noun phrases, consider including an article in each noun phrase

6.3 Use that with verbs that take noun clauses as complements

6.4 Use that in relative clauses

6.5 Clarify which parts of a sentence are being joined by and or or

6.6 Revise past participles

6.6.1 Revise past participles that follow and modify nouns

6.6.2 Revise past participial phrases that follow commas

6.7 Revise adjectives that follow nouns

6.8 Use to with indirect objects

6.9 Consider using both . . . and and either . . . or

6.10 Consider using if . . . then

6.11 Make each sentence syntactically and semantically complete

Introduction

Generally speaking, a syntactic cue is any element or aspect of language that helps readers identify parts of speech and analyze sentence structure. For example, prefixes, suffixes, articles (a, an, and the), prepositions, punctuation marks, and even word order are all syntactic cues.

Syntactic cues are so powerful that they enable readers to make grammatical sense out of the following lines from Lewis Carroll’s “Jabberwocky,” even though the content words are nonsense:

'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe.

Even readers who have never heard of syntactic cues know that toves is a noun, because it ends in -s and is preceded by the article the. They know that slithy is an adjective, because it ends in -y (a typical adjectival suffix) and because it occurs between an article and a noun. And they know that gyre and gimble are verbs because of the presence of the auxiliary verb did.

In this book, the term syntactic cue refers only to syntactic cues that can be omitted without making a sentence, clause, or phrase ungrammatical or incomprehensible. If you have taken courses in technical writing, then many of the words that your instructors taught you to omit for the sake of brevity are syntactic cues. For example, in the following sentence, the word that is a syntactic cue:

The user configuration file that you specify is executed along with the system configuration file that your installation uses.

But removing the two occurrences of that from the sentence makes the sentence more difficult to read and understand—especially for non-native speakers of English:

The user configuration file you specify is executed along with the system configuration file your installation uses.

Sentences from which syntactic cues have been omitted are often ambiguous and difficult to translate, in addition to being difficult to comprehend. So forget what you were taught, and put syntactic cues back into your writing! There are plenty of other ways to reduce word counts without depriving your global audience of words that are helpful or even essential. (See Appendix A, “Examples of Content Reduction.”)

A detailed discussion of the research that supports the use of syntactic cues is provided in Appendix D, “Improving Translatability and Readability with Syntactic Cues.” Therefore, this chapter provides only brief explanations of why each type of syntactic cue is necessary or useful.

Reminder: The Cardinal Rule of Global English The cardinal rule of Global English is especially applicable to syntactic cues. Use syntactic cues with discretion. Be careful not to change meaning or emphasis, and don’t use so many syntactic cues that your text sounds unnatural to native speakers of English. Most important, always consider whether some other type of revision, or some additional revision, would be better than merely inserting a syntactic cue.

6.1 Don’t use a telegraphic writing style

Priority: HT1, NN1, MT1

A telegraphic writing style, in which multiple articles or other syntactic cues are omitted, is not suitable for global audiences. As the following examples illustrate, this style of writing is often difficult even for native speakers to read and comprehend:

LABEL option not supported for file format.

The LABEL option is not supported for this file format.

SHEET name ignored if conflict occurs with RANGE name specified.

The SHEET name is ignored if it conflicts with the RANGE name that was specified.

Even in sentences that are not obviously telegraphic, you should look for opportunities to insert articles and other determiners:

The following features improve usability of the product for users who have disabilities.

The following features improve the usability of the product for users who have disabilities.

However, don’t violate guideline 2.8, “Use the only with definite nouns.”

6.2 In a series of noun phrases, consider including an article in each noun phrase

Priority: HT2, NN3, MT2

If some of the noun phrases in a series are definite and others are indefinite, then include the appropriate article in each noun phrase:

The base dictionary, user-defined dictionary, and document-specific dictionary can all be used by the spell-checking software.

The base dictionary, a user-defined dictionary, and a document-specific dictionary can all be used by the spell-checking software.

Similarly, if some indefinite noun phrases start with vowels (requiring an), and others start with consonants (requiring a), then include the appropriate article in each noun phrase:

If you choose to create an applet, application, console application, or servlet, you can set the following options.

If you choose to create an applet, an application, a console application, or a servlet, you can set the following options.

For an explanation of definite and indefinite nouns, see Kohl (1990).

6.3 Use that with verbs that take noun clauses as complements

Priority: HT2, NN2, MT2

Whenever you use any form of the verbs or verb phrases assume, be sure, ensure, indicate, make sure, mean, require, specify, suppose, and verify, consider inserting that to make the sentence structure more explicit. In this context, that helps readers (especially non-native speakers) and machine-translation software recognize that a noun clause follows. In the following example, the noun clause is enclosed in brackets:

A check mark next to the table name indicates [the table has been selected].

A check mark next to the table name indicates that [the table has been selected].

Here are some other sentences in which you can improve readability and translatability by inserting the syntactic cue that:

It is important to ensure the LDRTBLS value is large enough to contain your X client.

It is important to ensure that the LDRTBLS value is large enough to contain your X client.

Suppose the data is all numeric data and it is currently stored in a raw data file.

Suppose that the data is all numeric data and that it is currently stored in a raw data file.

Be Sure and Make Sure Both be sure and make sure should often be followed by that, but they are not exact synonyms. Be sure that is not appropriate when you are issuing a command. When you are telling readers to do something, use be sure to: Be sure that you brush your teeth regularly. Be sure to brush your teeth regularly. Be sure that is appropriate only in other, non-imperative contexts: Without checking the date of my virus definitions file, I could not be sure that I was protected against the NoamChomsky virus. When you are telling readers to ensure or verify something, use make sure that, ensure that, or verify that: Be sure that all elements can be used without a mouse. Make sure that all elements can be used without a mouse. Ensure that all elements can be used without a mouse. Be sure that the USCPI table contains summarized data. Verify that the USCPI table contains summarized data. Don’t use make sure to in any context. That usage is not standard English: Make sure to upload your images to the server. Be sure to upload your images to the server. Make sure to vote. Be sure to vote.

6.4 Use that in relative clauses

Priority: HT2, NN2, MT2

In English, there is a type of restrictive relative clause1 in which the relative pronoun is the object of the clause’s verb and can be omitted. In Global English, you should almost always include these relative pronouns in order to make the sentence structure explicit.

The file you selected is displayed in the frame on the right.

The file that you selected is displayed in the frame on the right.

The page you requested could not be located.

The page that you requested could not be located.

As usual, don’t insert this syntactic cue if doing so would make the sentence sound unnatural:

▶	The only other thing you can do is keep yourself well hydrated.

The only other thing that you can do is keep yourself well hydrated.

▶	The only thing I know for sure is that my little brother is an alien.

The only thing that I know for sure is that my little brother is an alien.

And as always, consider alternative revisions. In the following example, the revised sentence might briefly confuse some readers because the prepositional phrase to their original values could be modifying either change or to return:

Remember to return any global settings you change to their original values.

If you move the prepositional phrase closer to return, the sentence sounds strange to many native speakers:

Remember to return [to their original values] any global settings that you change.

In this case, the best solution is a complete revision that doesn’t even include a relative clause:

If you change any global settings, be sure to change them back to their original values.

Ungrammatical Use of that Be careful not to insert that in contexts where it is ungrammatical. In the revision of the following sentence, that does not have a legitimate grammatical function: Statements execute in the order they are written. Statements execute in the order that they are written. In order to produce a grammatical sentence, in which must be inserted instead: Statements execute in the order in which they are written. If this type of revision makes the sentence sound unnatural, then revise the sentence in some other way: The fundamental way computers work has not changed. The fundamental way that computers work has not changed. The fundamental way in which computers work has not changed. The fundamentals of computers have not changed in decades. The only way the differential would matter would be if there were ties in several categories. The only way that the differential would matter would be if there were ties in several categories. The only way in which the differential would matter would be if there were ties in several categories. The differential would matter only if there were ties in several categories.

6.5 Clarify which parts of a sentence are being joined by and or or

Priority: HT2, NN2, MT2

As you saw in guideline 4.5, when the conjunctions and and or join noun phrases, the scope of modification is often ambiguous. But and and or can also lead to another type of ambiguity, called ambiguous scope of conjunction.

The term scope of conjunction refers to the parts of a sentence that are being joined by and or or. Ambiguous scope of conjunction can sometimes be humorous or silly:

▶	Do not dip your bread or roll in your soup.

If you interpret or as joining two verb phrases, then the scope of conjunction is broad:

Do not [dip your bread] or [roll in your soup].

If you interpret or as joining two noun phrases, then the scope of conjunction is narrow:

Do not dip [your bread] or [roll] in your soup.

You can eliminate the ambiguity by inserting your before roll:

Do not dip your bread or your roll in your soup.

This form of the possessive pronoun your is always followed by a noun.2 Thus, your is a syntactic cue that makes it clear that roll is a noun rather than a verb.

In technical documents, ambiguous scope of conjunction can be confusing or even dangerous. For example, the following sentence is confusing to all readers:

The application can use the window to establish a dialog with the user and format text responses.

Here are two possible interpretations of the sentence:

The application [can use the window to establish a dialog with the user] and [can format text responses].

The application can use the window [to establish a dialog with the user] and [to format text responses

The second revision of this sentence is correct. But without the syntactic cue, neither a reader, a human translator, nor machine-translation software can be sure about the correct interpretation.

Not Just a Matter of Style

Many authors and editors recognize that using syntactic cues following and or or adds a pleasing parallelism to their sentences:

The coordinates correspond to the top of the vertical slide bar and the left edge of the horizontal slide bar.

The coordinates correspond [to the top of the vertical slide bar] and [to the left edge of the horizontal slide bar].

But as you saw in the previous examples, parallelism is not just a stylistic issue. The syntactic cues that create parallel grammatical structures are often essential for clear communication.

Examples of Syntactic Cues That Resolve Scope-of- Conjunction Problems

Depending on the context, many different syntactic cues can be used to resolve scope-of- conjunction problems. Here are several examples:

Prepositions

DQCleanse enables you to standardize your data by building schemes from your data and applying those schemes to your data.

DQCleanse enables you to standardize your data by building schemes from your data and by applying those schemes to your data.

The infinitive marker to

You cannot use the DATASETS procedure to change the values of rows, change or delete columns, or change the type or length of variables.

You cannot use the DATASETS procedure to change the values of rows, to change or delete variables, or to change the type or length of variables.

That

Typically, the message indicates that a variable has been identified incorrectly or the raw data file contains some invalid data values.

Typically, the message indicates that a variable has been identified incorrectly or that the raw data file contains some invalid data values.

Auxiliary verbs

Because the expression produces a numeric value, TOTAL is defined as a numeric variable and assigned a default length of 8.

Because the expression produces a numeric value, TOTAL is defined as a numeric variable and is assigned a default length of 8.

Modal verbs

Character values must be enclosed in quotation marks and be in the same case as in the data set.

Character values must be enclosed in quotation marks and must be in the same case as in the data set.

Subordinating conjunctions

Position the statement in the program so that it checks the condition as soon as it is logically possible and unnecessary statements do not execute.

Position the statement in the program so that it checks the condition as soon as it is logically possible, and so that unnecessary statements do not execute.

If a single lookup might take several seconds and many clients might request service simultaneously, then the server must be able to handle multiple clients concurrently.

If a single lookup might take several seconds, and if many clients might request service simultaneously, then the server must be able to handle multiple clients concurrently.

Tips for Clarifying Scope of Conjunction Tip 1: Consider making additional revisions Keep in mind that merely inserting a syntactic cue is not always the best way to resolve a scope-of-conjunction ambiguity. In the following example, the second revision, in which the sentence has been rearranged and revised further, conveys the intended meaning better than the first revision: The ID variables list is a list of variables whose values rarely change and are useful for identification. The ID variables list is a list of variables whose values rarely change and that are useful for identification. The ID variables list is a list of variables that are useful for identification because their values rarely change. The next revision is more concise and eliminates the need for the syntactic cue. However, moving the variables to the beginning of the sentence changes the emphasis. The author must decide whether the change in emphasis is acceptable: The variables in the ID variables list are useful for identification because their values rarely change. Tip 2: Be careful not to accidentally distort your meaning Make sure you understand which parts of a sentence are being joined by and or or. Otherwise, you might distort the meaning of the sentence by inserting the wrong syntactic cue. In the next example, inserting to after and is wrong because pointer controls are not used for naming variables: The values for SALARY begin in column 19, so use the pointer control to point to column 19 and name the variable. The values for SALARY begin in column 19, so use the pointer control to point to column 19 and to name the variable. A subject-matter expert would revise the sentence correctly as follows: The values for SALARY begin in column 19, so use the pointer control to point to column 19, and then name the variable. Note: If an editor or peer reviewer inserts syntactic cues, the author must review the edits carefully to ensure that all ambiguities are resolved correctly.

(continued)

Tip 3: Syntactic cues are not always necessary or desirable In general, don’t insert a syntactic cue if the parts of a sentence that are being joined by and or or are so close together that there is no potential for misreading or ambiguity: There is no need to re-sort a table when rows are modified or added. There is no need to re-sort a table when rows are modified or are added. The text substitution that this activity produces is complete before the program text is compiled and executed. The text substitution that this activity produces is complete before the program text is compiled and is executed. However, if two different grammatical constructions are being joined, then insert a syntactic cue even if the two parts are close together. In the following example, known is an adjective, and built is a participle that forms the passive verb are built: The tags are known and built into the browser. The tags [are known] and [are built into the browser].

6.6 Revise past participles

Priority: HT2, NN2, MT2

Overview of Past Participles

A past participle is a form of a verb that usually ends in -ed or -d, as in distinguished and described. However, the past participles of some verbs are formed by making internal spelling changes or by adding other endings, as in begun, done, paid, and written.3 The past participle is the form of a verb that is used to form the present perfect tense.

In the following table, the past participle is in bold in the third column. As you can see, the past participle is often the same as the past-tense form of a verb:

Table 6.1 Present, Past, and Present Perfect of Some Common English Verbs

6.6.1 Revise past participles that follow and modify nouns

Past participles that follow nouns are problematic for non-native speakers as well as for machine-translation software because, as you saw in Table 6.1, a past participle is often identical to the past-tense form of a verb. When you expand the participle into a relative clause, the sentence structure is more explicit and is easier to analyze.

In some contexts, you can convert the participle to a relative clause by inserting that and making other small adjustments to the sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the past participial construction, used by the NETFLOW procedure, can be converted to a relative clause, that the NETFLOW procedure uses:

This is the same algorithm used by the NETFLOW procedure.

This is the same algorithm that the NETFLOW procedure uses.

In other contexts, you must insert that plus some form of the verb to be (that is, that are, that was, that were, that has been, that have been, and so on), as in this example:

The Checklist feature provides a method of cataloging tasks performed during routine procedures.

The Checklist feature provides a method of cataloging tasks that are performed during routine procedures.

However, keep in mind that the present-tense form of to be is not always appropriate:

The template used for the episode is overlaid on each waveform.

The template that is used for the episode is overlaid on each waveform.

The template that was used for the episode is overlaid on each waveform.

The Cardiac Compass report includes an entry for every defibrillation therapy delivered.

The Cardiac Compass report includes an entry for every defibrillation therapy that is delivered.

The Cardiac Compass report includes an entry for every defibrillation therapy that has been delivered.

This guideline is also applicable to sentences in which not separates the noun from the participle:

Any argument not enclosed in angle brackets is a required argument.

Any argument that is not enclosed in angle brackets is a required argument.

Careful Analysis Is Required The past participles in the following sentences cannot be expanded into relative clauses without making the sentences ungrammatical: ▶ The Sequence flag always has the two low bits set to 0. ▶ Leave the Authenticate option checked. Don’t expand a past participle if doing so would make the sentence sound unnatural to native speakers or would change the emphasis in the sentence.

6.6.2 Revise past participial phrases that follow commas

If a past participial phrase follows a comma, make the sentence structure more explicit by changing the participial phrase to a relative clause:

The Life Peerage, created by the Life Peerages Act of 1958, is often regarded as inferior to the Hereditary Peerage.

The Life Peerage, which was created by the Life Peerages Act of 1958, is often regarded as inferior to the Hereditary Peerage.

An even better revision strategy is to put the main clause and the participial phrase in separate sentences. Single-clause sentences are often easier to translate than sentences that contain embedded relative clauses:

The Life Peerage was created by the Life Peerages Act of 1958. It is often regarded as inferior to the Hereditary Peerage.

Here is another example that illustrates the two revision strategies:

The list of the top 50 cities for fall allergens, compiled by the Allergy Foundation of America, shows the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area as number 2.

The list of the top 50 cities for fall allergens, which was compiled by the Allergy Foundation of America, shows the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area as number 2.

The list of the top 50 cities for fall allergens shows the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area as number 2. The list was compiled by the Allergy Foundation of America.

As always, consider whether other, more concise, revisions are possible:

In a list that was compiled by the Allergy Foundation of America, the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area is number 2.

6.7 Revise adjectives that follow nouns

Priority: HT2, NN2, MT2

When an adjective follows a noun, consider expanding the adjective into a relative clause:

Intervals shorter than the VF interval are counted by the VF event counter.

Intervals that are shorter than the VF interval are counted by the VF event counter.

The RTF option produces output suitable for Microsoft Word reports.

The RTF option produces output that is suitable for Microsoft Word reports.

Relative clauses are more syntactically explicit than adjectives that follow nouns. Therefore, relative clauses are easier for non-native speakers of English to comprehend and for machine-translation systems to analyze.

Remember that instead of merely inserting syntactic cues, you should always be looking for opportunities to make sentences more concise:

The data available in the episode log includes the following types of data:

The data that is available in the episode log includes the following types of data:

The episode log includes the following types of data:

Related Guideline

■	4.2.3, "If a prepositional phrase modifies a noun phrase, consider expanding it into a relative clause"

6.8 Use to with indirect objects

Priority: HT3, NN2, MT2

Whenever you use the verb give or assign with both a direct object and an indirect object, consider using the word to to make the indirect object more syntactically explicit. In the following examples, the direct objects are underlined, and the indirect objects are italicized:

A label gives a variable a more informative name.

A label gives a more informative name to a variable.

Before printing a date, you usually assign it a format.

Before printing a date, you usually assign a format to it.

Notice that when you use the word to in this context, the indirect object typically follows the direct object and receives greater emphasis. If the added emphasis seems inappropriate or sounds unnatural to you, then don’t follow this guideline.

Other Verbs to Consider This guideline is probably also applicable to other verbs that can take both direct objects and indirect objects. Here is a partial list of such verbs that might be used in technical documentation: award, bring, buy,4 deny, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, loan, offer, owe, pass, pay, promise, read, recite, rent, sell, send, serve, show, take, teach, tell, throw, toss, wire, and write. You might want to collect examples of sentences that contain these verbs in order to determine how frequently this guideline could be applied to each verb.

6.9 Consider using both . . . and and either . . . or

Priority: HT3, NN3, MT3

When appropriate, consider using the correlative conjunctions both . . . and and either . . . or rather than just and and or. Pairs of correlative conjunctions improve readability by making it easier for readers to see which parts of a sentence are being conjoined. They also facilitate human translation and machine translation.

However, in order for correlative conjunctions to add clarity rather than confusion, you must place them in the correct locations. When you use both . . . and or either . . . or, make sure that they frame similar grammatical constructions. The following sentence is incorrect because not found in the autocall library doesn’t have the same grammatical structure as it could not be opened:

The macro was either [not found in the autocall library] or [it could not be opened].

In the corrected version of the sentence, both either and or are followed by subjects and verb phrases:

Either [the macro was not found in the autocall library] or [the macro could not be opened].

Examples of both . . . and

The lexicographer must specify the syntactic category of the word and the categories of the phrases that it can take as complements.

The lexicographer must specify both the syntactic category of the word and the categories of the phrases that it can take as complements.

Don’t include a structure tag and variables or definitions in the same declaration.

Don’t include both a structure tag and variables or definitions in the same declaration.

Examples of either . . . or

This model has a push button or a slide switch with which you select the resolution.

This model has either a push button or a slide switch with which you select the resolution.

If the range is not dense, then convert your integers to strings or do a binary search on an array of possible values.

If the range is not dense, then either convert your integers to strings or do a binary search on an array of possible values.

Careful Analysis Is Required Note that both and either are not always conjunctions. In the following sentences, they are adjectives. When they are used as adjectives, they don’t frame similar grammatical constructions even if they happen to be followed by and or or. ▶ No waiver by either party of any breach or default shall be deemed to be a waiver of any subsequent breach or default. ▶ Individuals might claim tax credits for both types of solar-energy systems and for using heat pumps that have SEER ratings of 12 or higher.

6.10 Consider using if . . . then

Priority: HT3, NN3, MT3

If if introduces a conditional clause, then consider beginning the following clause with then. The then in an if . . . then construction improves readability partly by providing semantic reinforcement. That is, it reinforces the idea of a condition being followed by a result or consequence. It also serves as a syntactic cue, clearly signaling the beginning of the main clause.

If you have not assigned a logical name to the data file, specify the physical filename in the statement that refers to the file.

If you have not assigned a logical name to the data file, then specify the physical filename in the statement that refers to the file.

If you used the SDL script to build the Xmingw compiler, the script should have built the full set of tools, including the C++ compiler.

If you used the SDL script to build the Xmingw compiler, then the script should have built the full set of tools, including the C++ compiler.

If inserting then doesn’t make the sentence sound better to you, then don’t do it. For example, when the verb in the if clause is in present tense, the use of then often seems to be less appropriate:5

If the plastic ratchet straps are dirty, then it’s very difficult to loosen them because the dirt causes the microlock to seize.

If variations arise in the female line, then they are not likely to be transmitted exclusively in that line.

If you want to filter the data that an information map can access, then use a stored process to perform that filtering

6.11 Make each sentence syntactically and semantically complete

Priority: HT1, NN2, MT1

In addition to omitting the specific types of syntactic cues that have already been addressed in this chapter, authors occasionally omit other words or phrases that they consider optional in certain contexts. But syntactic or semantic incompleteness makes sentences more difficult for non-native speakers to comprehend and for some types of machine-translation systems to analyze. It can also make the sentences more difficult for human translators and for other readers who are not familiar with the subject matter.

The widespread misuse of that, which was mentioned in guideline 6.4, is one example of some authors’ tendency to be syntactically incomplete:

The contingency table lists eye and hair color in the order that they appear in the data set.

The contingency table lists eye and hair color in the order in which they appear in the data set

Sometimes authors omit so much semantic content that a sentence is quite ambiguous. For example, it is impossible for anyone other than the author to know which interpretation of the following sentence is correct:

Accessing the return code is operating-system specific.

The way in which return codes are accessed is operating-system specific.

Return codes are accessed on some operating systems, but not on others.

Return codes are accessed differently on some operating systems than on others.

Similarly, most readers and translators would not fully understand what in hexadecimal means in the following sentence. The author omitted too much of the semantic content:

Examine the sample file, checking for the correct syntax in hexadecimal.

Examine the sample file, checking for the correct syntax in the hexadecimal representation of the heading.

In the following examples, the intended meanings are less difficult to discern. Nevertheless, the ideas in these sentences should be stated more explicitly.

Space is tracked and reused in the compressed file according to the REUSE value when the file was created, not when you add and delete records.

Space is tracked and reused in the compressed file according to the REUSE value that was in effect when the file was created, not according to the REUSE value that is in effect when you add and delete records.

If you are uncertain which table you need, browse through all the tables.

If you are uncertain about which table you need, browse through all the tables.

If you are not sure which table you need, browse through all the tables.

Because the Java applet is executing locally, it can provide a much richer interactive environment than a CGI program can.

Because the Java applet is executing locally, it can provide a much richer interactive environment than a CGI program can provide.

If employees have planned to do any work in an Oasis application this weekend that can be delayed until Monday, they should consider doing so.

Any employees who planned to use an Oasis application this weekend should consider waiting until Monday.

If you were planning to use an Oasis application this weekend, please consider waiting until Monday.