These citations are all excellent and recommended for more details than were possible to include in this book. Book recommendations forming a color‐science library are listed separately.

Adams, E.Q. (1942). X‐Z planes in the 1931 I.C.I. (CIE) system of colorimetry. Journal of the Optical Society of America 32: 168–173.

Adams was the first to derive an opponent‐type color space from tristimulus values. This was the basis for later work with Nickerson, ultimately resulting in CIELAB.

Albers, J. (1963). Interaction of Color. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

The “Interaction of Color” is available in several forms including an interactive version where colors can be moved to demonstrate how the juxtaposition of colors affects perception. This and Itten's “Elements of Color” are considered landmarks in color design.

Allen, E. (1980). Colorant formulation and shading. In: Optical Radiation Measurements: Color Measurement, vol. 2 (ed. F. Grum and C.J. Bartleson), 290–336. New York: Academic Press.

Allen was the first to publish color‐formulation algorithms using single‐ and two‐constant Kubelka–Munk theory. The chapter summarizes these articles and explains Kubelka–Munk theory and Bouguer–Beer's law. The chapter is very well written and insightful.

Allen, E. and Yuhas, B. (1984). Setting up acceptability tolerances: a case study. Color Research & Application 9: 37–48.

This article describes how three‐dimensional confidence ellipsoids are derived. This paper and the Indow and Morrison paper are excellent background reading for using visual data to develop colorimetric confidence ellipsoids.

Asano, Y., Fairchild, M.D., and Blondé, L. (2016). Individual colorimetric observer model. PLoS ONE 11 (2): e0145671. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145671.

The CIE physiological model predicts average color vision as a function of age and field size. This research extends the CIE model to incorporate individual variation about the average.

ASTM E284 – 13b (2013). Standard terminology of appearance. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.

The ASTM is cited throughout this book and all the documents are useful. This is an excellent reference providing standard terminology.

Backhaus, W.G.K., Kliegl, R., and Werner, J.S. (1998). Color Vision Perspectives from Different Disciplines. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

A contributed‐chapter text that is engaging and an interesting departure from typical color science texts. It is divided into four sections: color vision in art and science, physiology and neuroethology, psychology and philosophy, and color metrics and applications.

Berns, R.S. (1996a). Deriving instrumental tolerances from pass‐fail and colorimetric data. Color Research & Application 21: 459–472.

Berns uses data collected in an industrial short course to demonstrate how to define a total color difference tolerance from visual assessments.

Berns, R.S. (1997). A generic approach to color modeling. Color Research & Application 22: 318–325.

Berns taught a graduate course on color modeling and over time, recognized generalities when modeling coloration systems such as displays and paints.

Berns, R.S. (2014a). Extending CIELAB: Vividness, , depth, , and clarity, . Color Research & Application 39: 322–330.

Color mixtures and colored shadows, among others, do not vary independently in CIELAB chroma, , but co‐vary in chroma and lightness. Berns derived new coordinates that correlate with co‐varying color changes.

Berns, R.S., Alman, D.H., Reniff, L. et al. (1991). Visual determination of supra‐threshold color‐difference tolerances using probit analysis. Color Research & Application 16: 297–316.

This is the RIT‐DuPont color‐tolerance dataset, one of the datasets used to derive CIEDE2000.

Berns, R.S. and Billmeyer, F.W. (1983). Proposed indices of metamerism with constant chromatic adaptation. Color Research & Application 8: 186–189.

The authors recognized that the chromatic adaptation transformation (CAT) embedded in CIELAB is inaccurate and proposed metameric and color‐inconstancy indices where a more accurate CAT is used.

Berns, R.S. and Petersen, K.H. (1988). Empirical modeling of systematic spectrophotometric errors. Color Research & Application 13: 243–256.

This describes how to implement Robertson's concept of diagnosing spectrophotometric errors by comparing spectra of ceramic colored tiles measured on reference and test instruments. This approach is known as instrument profiling.

Berns, R.S. and Reniff, L. (1997). An abridged technique to diagnose spectrophotometric errors. Color Research & Application 22: 51–60.

The cyan tile from the Lucideon ceramic tile set can be used to transform CIELAB ΔL^*Δa^*Δb^* to reference black, white, and wavelength errors. The differences can be calculated between reference and test instruments or for a single instrument, useful to track instrument accuracy over time.

Billmeyer, F.W. and Alessi, P.J. (1981). Assessment of color‐measuring instruments. Color Research & Application 6: 195–202.

The concept of MCDM, the mean color difference from the mean, is introduced as a measure of instrument precision.

Billmeyer, F.W. and Bencuya, A.K. (1987). Interrelation of the natural color system and the Munsell color order system. Color Research & Application 12: 243–255.

The differences between the NCS and Munsell systems are evaluated by plotting the four elementary NCS hues in Munsell value‐chroma and Munsell hue‐chroma coordinates.

Fred, W., Billmeyer, J., and Saltzman, M. (1966). Principles of Color Technology. New York: Wiley.

This was written when Billmeyer and Saltzman were industrial scientists who well understood the importance of focusing on principles and the concept of thinking and looking before any action. This was written when industrial color measurement was still novel.

Brettel, H., Viénot, F., and Mollon, J.D. (1997). Computerized simulation of color appearance for dichromats. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 14: 2647–2655.

A technique to transform a color image as seen by a color‐normal observer to images as seen by observers missing L, M, or S cones.

Brown, W.R.J. and MacAdam, D.L. (1949). Visual sensitivities to combined chromaticity and luminance differences. Journal of the Optical Society of America 39: 808–834.

One of the earliest discrimination experiments where stimuli varied in both chromaticity and luminance factor. The follow‐on to MacAdam's experiments measuring discrimination at constant luminance factor, the “MacAdam ellipses”: MacAdam, D.L. (1943). Specification of small chromaticity differences. Journal of the Optical Society of America 33: 18–26.

Burns, P.D. and Berns, R.S. (1997). Error propagation in color signal transformations. Color Research & Application 22: 280–289.

Color conversions from RGB to XYZ to L^*a^*b^* propagate error caused by uncertainty in the original coordinate system. Formulas are derived to calculate this error.

Chevreul, M.E. (1967). The Principle of Harmony and Contrast of Colors (based on the first English edition of 1854). New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation.

Chevreul was a dye chemist who discovered the law of simultaneous contrast and other perceptual effects. This was one of the books studied by the post‐impressionists.

CIE 15:2018 (2018). Colorimetry, 4e. Vienna: Commission Internationale de L'Éclairage.

The International Commission on Illumination has defined colorimetry. This is the primary reference.

Clarke, F.J.J., McDonald, R., and Rigg, B. (1984). Modification to the JPC79 colour‐difference formula. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 100: 128–132.

The CMC formula was based on an earlier formula used by J. P. Coates for quality control of textiles. This article describes the derivation of CMC.

Cui, G., Luo, M.R., Rigg, B. et al. (2002). Uniform colour spaces based on the DIN99 colour‐difference formula. Color Research & Application 27: 282–290.

Color‐appearance spaces do not predict visual color tolerance data. The spaces can be transformed using Riemannian geometry to uniform color‐appearance spaces.

Derhak, M.W. and Berns, R.S. (2015). Introducing Wpt (Waypoint): a color equivalency representation for defining a material adjustment transform. Color Research & Application 40: 535–549.

Material adjustment transforms are used to convert the color of an object viewed under one lighting or observer condition to another lighting or observer condition. This is not a chromatic adaptation transform. It is used in place of having spectral data that are used to calculate colorimetry for any illuminant and observer.

Donaldson, R. (1954). Spectrophotometry of fluorescent pigments. British Journal of Applied Physics 5: 210–214.

Donaldson developed the use of a bispectrometer to characterize fluorescent materials, described in this article.

Duncan, D.R. (1940). The colour of pigment mixtures. Proceedings of the Physical Society 52: 390–400.

This is the first publication stating that absorption and scattering are considered a linear system in predicting colorant mixtures.

Early, E.A. and Nadal, M.E. (2004). Uncertainty analysis for reflectance colorimetry. Color Research & Application 29: 205–216.

Scientists from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology describe various spectrophotometric errors and how they are propagated, resulting in measurement uncertainty.

Fairman, H.S., Brill, M.H., and Hemmendinger, H. (1997). How the CIE 1931 color‐matching functions were derived from Wright‐Guild data. Color Research & Application 22 22: 11–23.

Fairman, H.S., Brill, M.H., and Hemmendinger, H. (1998). How the CIE 1931 color‐matching functions were derived from Wright‐Guild data. Color Research & Application 22 23: 259.

The authors explain the various derivations and transformations beginning with the fundamental experiments of Wright and Guild and ending with the CIE 1931 standard observer.

Germer, T.A., Zwinkels, J.C., and Tsai, B.K. (2014). Spectrophotometry: accurate measurement of optical properties of materials. In: Experimental Methods in the Physical Sciences (ed. T. Lucatorto, A.C. Parr and K. Baldwin). Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc.

A contributed chapter book about spectrophotometry, written for the expert. Chapters include, introduction, theoretical concepts in spectrophotometric measurements, dispersive methods, Fourier transform methods, regular reflectance and transmittance, diffuse reflectance and transmittance, spectral fluorescence measurements, angle‐resolved diffuse reflectance and transmittance, spectral emissivity measurements, color and appearance, the use of spectrophotometry in the pharmaceutical industry, spectrophotometry applications: remote sensing, and microspectrophotometry.

Gescheider, G.A. (1997). Psychophysics: The Fundamentals, 3e. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Introduction to measuring the human response to external stimuli. Chapters include psychophysical measurement of thresholds: differential sensitivity, psychophysical measurement of thresholds: absolute sensitivity, the classical psychophysical methods, classical psychophysical theory, the theory of signal detection, further considerations of TSD, procedures of TSD, some applications of TSD, the measurement of sensory attributes and discrimination scales, partition scales, psychophysical ratio scaling, evaluation of ratio scaling methods, the psychophysical law, and some fundamental issues in psychophysical scaling.

Glasser, L.G., McKinney, A.H., Reilly, C.D., and Schnelle, P.D. (1958). Cube‐root color coordinate system. Journal of the Optical Society of America 48: 736–740.

This is the origin of the cube‐root used in L^*, a^*, and b^*.

Grasselli, M.M., Phillips, I.E., Smentek, K., and Walsh, J.C. (2003). Colorful Impressions: The Printmaking Revolution in Eighteenth‐Century France. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art.

A beautiful exhibition catalog describing the development of color printing. It is incredible to think that multi‐ink printing was accomplished using only the eye and experience.

Hård, A., Sivik, L., and Tonnquist, G. (1996a). NCS, natural color system—from concept to research and applications. Part I. Color Research & Application 21: 180–205.

Hård, A., Sivik, L., and Tonnquist, G. (1996b). NCS, natural color system—from concept to research and applications. Part II. Color Research & Application 21: 206–220.

These scientists developed the NCS system and this pair of articles provides considerable insight into the system.

Hardy, A.C. and Wurzburg, F.L. (1937). The theory of three‐color reproduction. Journal of the Optical Society of America 27: 227–240.

Colorimetric color reproduction did not begin with the ICC. It began in this article.

Hébert, M. and Emmel, P. (2015). Two‐flux and multiflux matrix models for colored surfaces. In: Handbook of Digital Imaging (ed. M. Kriss), 1234–1278. New York: Wiley.

For those conversant in matrix algebra, this is an excellent description of the optical modeling of mixtures of absorbing and scattering colorants.

Hébert, M. and Hersch, R.D. (2015). Review of spectral reflectance models for halftone prints: principles, calibration, and prediction accuracy. Color Research & Application 40: 383–397.

An excellent and very readable review of modeling halftone printing. The follow‐on to the Wyble and Berns review from 2000.

Hering, E. (1964). Outlines of a Theory of the Light Sense, translated by L.M Hurvich and D. Jameson (Zur Lehre vom Lichtsinne. Vienna, Austria: Druck und Verlag von Gerold's sohn, 1878). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Primary reference for opponent color theory.

Hunt, R.W.G. (1976). Sky‐blue pink. Color Research & Application 1: 11–16.

Hunt describes the problem of color specification that is independent of the adapting illuminant. A stimulus defined by only its chromaticities and luminance factor can appear either blue or pink depending on whether the adaptation is incandescent or daylight.

Hunter, R.S. (1937). Methods of determining gloss, NBS research paper RP 958. Journal of Research National Bureau of Standards 18: 19–39.

Hunter invented a variety of instruments to characterize gloss. Equally important, he defined six perceptual attributes of gloss: specular gloss, sheen, contrast gloss, absence‐of‐bloom gloss, distinctness‐of‐reflected‐image gloss, and absence‐of‐surface‐texture gloss.

Hunter, R.S. (1942). Photoelectric tristimulus colorimetry with three filters. NBS Circular 429, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, Reprinted in. Journal of the Optical Society of America 32: 509–538.

Hunter invented filter colorimeters and went on to a develop color‐difference meter and his own color space, HunterLab. HunterLab is a precursor to CIELUV. Hunter recognized that the filters did not need to match color‐matching functions; rather, the combination of filters and signal processing would lead to the same result as using color‐matching functions.

IESNA TM‐30‐15 (2015). IES Method for Evaluating Light Source Color Rendition. New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.

This method was developed by a team of lighting scientists and engineers to replace the CIE color‐rendering index. It will not, but can be used for more detailed analyses of white light and calculating preference.

Indow, T. and Morrison, M.L. (1991). Construction of discrimination ellipsoids for surface colors by the method of constant stimuli. Color Research & Application 16: 42–56.

Pass/fail visual data combined from many observers are used to calculate confidence ellipsoids. This paper and the Allen and Yuhas paper are excellent background reading for using visual data to develop colorimetric confidence ellipsoids.

Judd, D.B., MacAdam, D.L., Wyszecki, G. et al. (1964). Spectral distribution of typical daylight as a function of correlated color temperature. Journal of the Optical Society of America 54: 1031–1040, 1382.

Detailed description of the derivation of the CIE D‐series illuminants.

Kirchner, E., van den Kieboom, G.‐J., Njo, L. et al. (2007). Observation of visual texture of metallic and pearlescent materials. Color Research & Application 32: 256–266.

Definitions, examples, visual experiments, and data analysis of sparkle and graininess.

Kubelka, P. (1948). New contributions to the optics of intensely light‐scattering materials. Part I. Journal of the Optical Society of America 38: 448–456, 1067.

Kubelka, P. (1954). New contributions to the optics of intensely light‐scattering materials. Part II: Nonhomogeneous layers. Journal of the Optical Society of America 44: 330–355.

Kubelka derives a number of formulas enabling the practical use of Kubelka–Munk theory.

Kuehni, R.G. (2002). The early development of the Munsell system. Color Research & Application 21: 20–27.

A summary of A. H. Munsell's diary providing insight into the Munsell system.

Leland, J.E., Johnson, N.L., and Arecchi, A.V. (1997). Principles of bispectral fluorescence colorimetry. In: Optical Science, Engineering and Instrumentation '97, 76–87. San Diego, CA.

Overview of measuring fluorescent materials with a bispectrometer and calculating colorimetric coordinates.

Luo, M.R., Cui, G., and Rigg, B. (2001). The development of the CIE 2000 colour‐difference formula: CIEDE2000. Color Research & Application 26: 340–350.

CIEDE2000 was developed by CIE technical committee TC1‐47, composed of experts from the United States, Japan, Switzerland, Great Britain, Spain, Canada, and Germany, the authors among them. The article includes a brief history of weighted color‐tolerance formulas, the experiments used to create a dataset, and the various optimized functions.

Luo, M.R. and Rigg, B. (1986). Chromaticity‐discrimination ellipses for surface colors. Color Research & Application 11: 25–42.

This is the Bradford color‐tolerance dataset, one of the datasets used to derive CIEDE2000.

MacAdam, D.L. (1935). Maximum visual efficiency of colored materials. Journal of the Optical Society of America 25: 361–367.

Description of the “MacAdam limits” that were calculated to define the color gamut of nonfluorescent reflecting materials. A variety of computational methods have been published over the years. The displays community still uses this calculation as a comparative index where a given display encompasses some percentage of the MacAdam limits.

Maile, F.J., Pfaff, G., and Reynders, P. (2005). Effect pigments—past, present and future. Progress in Organic Coatings 54: 150–163.

Comprehensive overview of gonioapparent colorants.

McCamy, C.S. (1985). Physical exemplification of color order systems. Color Research & Application 10: 20–25.

In this time period, McCamy oversaw the manufacture of the Munsell Book of Color. His insights led to the “ten commandments” of producing color‐order systems. It is important reading for those involved in producing visual standards.

McCamy, C.S. (1996). Observation and measurement of the appearance of metallic materials. I. Macro appearance. Color Research & Application 21: 292–304.

McCamy, C.S. (1998). Observation and measurement of the appearance of metallic materials. II. Micro appearance. Color Research & Application 23: 362–373.

The study of visual texture begins with these articles. A motivating factor for McCamy was the inadequate geometric descriptions and large tolerances of the CIE recommended geometries for spectrophotometry. McCamy defined the geometry of densitometers while working at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology.

McDonald, R. (1997). Recipe prediction for textiles. In: Colour Physics for Industry (ed. R. McDonald), 209–291. Bradford: Society of Dyers and Colourists.

This is an excellent chapter on colorant formulation for textiles. It is authoritative and includes Kubelka–Munk theory and physical‐chemistry approaches to color predictions.

Melgosa, M., Huertas, R., and Berns, R.S. (2004). Relative significance of the terms in the CIEDE2000 and CIE94 color‐difference formulas. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 21: 2269–2275.

CIEDE2000 has a large number of coefficients and many nonlinear functions. The authors analyze the statistical significance of the positional functions: S_L, S_C, S_H, and T. The most important parameters in improving correlation between perceived and calculated color tolerances were S_C and S_H.

Munsell, A.H. (1899–1918). Color diary. http://www.rit.edu/cos/colorscience/ab_munsell_diaries.php (accessed 19 October 2018).

Transcription of his diaries during his invention of the Munsell system and products based on his system. His thinking is recorded in his drawings, traced from the original diaries.

Nayatani, Y. (2005). Why two kinds of color order systems are necessary? Color Research & Application 30: 295–303.

This article is very helpful to understand the differences between NCS and Munsell and why each is valuable.

Newhall, S.M., Nickerson, D., and Judd, D.B. (1943). Final report of the O.S.A. subcommittee on the spacing of the Munsell colors. Journal of the Optical Society of America 33: 385–418.

Visual experiments were performed to improve the spacing of the Munsell system. The results were published as a lookup table of Munsell coordinates and corresponding x, y, Y colorimetric coordinates. The data were extrapolated beyond the visual results to facilitate conversion programs that calculate Munsell coordinates from colorimetric data.

Nicodemus, F.E., Richmond, J.C., Hsia, J.J. et al. (1977). Geometrical Considerations and Nomenclature for Reflectance. Washington, DC: National Bureau of Standards, US Department of Commerce http://physics.nist.gov/Divisions/Div844/.

The definitive description of the bidirectional reflectance distribution function, BRDF. Their nomenclature is still used and many articles that measure BRDF cite this reference.

Nobbs, J.H. (1985). Kubelka‐Munk theory and the prediction of reflectance. Review of Progress in Coloration and Related Topics 15: 66–75.

An excellent review of Kubelka–Munk theory, written at an intermediate level.

Nobbs, J.H. (1997). Colour‐match prediction for pigmented materials. In: Colour Physics for Industry (ed. R. McDonald), 292–372. Bradford: Society of Dyers and Colourists.

The companion chapter to McDonalds' chapter on color formulation of textiles. It is comprehensive but not written at an introductory level.

Nobbs, J.H. (2002). A lightness, chroma and hue splitting approach to CIEDE2000 color differences. Advances in Colour Science and Technology 5 (2): 46–53.

Nobbs derived “ΔLΔCΔH” descriptions based on CIEDE2000.

Ribés, A. and Schmitt, F. (2008). Linear inverse problems in imaging: an introductory survey. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 25 (4): 84–99.

A summary of methods to convert from camera signals to spectral reflectance factor. It is an inverse mapping problem because multispectral imaging systems have fewer channels than the number of wavelengths in a spectrophotometer.

Robertson, A.R. (1968). Computation of correlated color temperature and distribution temperature. Journal of the Optical Society of America 58: 1528–1535.

The most commonly used method to calculate correlated color temperature. Many other approaches have since been published.

Robertson, A.R. (1987). Diagnostic performance evaluation of spectrophotometers. In: Advances in Standards and Methodology in Spectrophotometry (ed. C. Burgess and K.D. Mielenz), 277–286. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

This is the origin of instrument profiling. Robertson spent his career at the National Research Council Canada and was very involved in color measurement and colorimetry.

Robertson, A.R. (1990). Historical development of CIE recommended color difference equations. Color Research & Application 15: 167–170.

Robertson was a member of the CIE subcommittee that developed CIELAB and CIELUV. In fact, he derived the constants 116, 16, 500, and 200 in CIELAB. He describes the committee work, voting, and corrects misconceptions about the differences between CIELAB and CIELUV.

Saunderson, J.L. (1942). Calculation of the color of pigmented plastics. Journal of the Optical Society of America 32: 727–736.

One of the important publications about color formulation. He introduces the use of correcting for refractive index discontinuities to convert from measured to internal spectral reflectance factor. Despite citing Ryde in 1931, who derived the formulas, the correction is known as the “Saunderson correction.”

Shafer, S. (1985). Using color to separate reflection components. Color Research & Application 10: 210–218.

This article introduces the concept of body color as an inherent property of materials that is independent from material‐appearance attributes. Body color takes on significance with the use of cameras to measure material appearance for color technology.

Simonds, J.L. (1963). Application of characteristic vector analysis to photographic and optical response data. Journal of the Optical Society of America 53: 968–974.

Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to define the CIE D‐series illuminants. Simonds performed the analyses. This article explains the use of PCA to reduce the dimensionality of spectral data, then called characteristic vector analysis.

Stevens, S.S. (1957). On the psychophysical law. Psychological Review 64: 153–181.

Detailed description of using an exponential function (“power law”) as a psychometric function to describe the relationship between a stimulus and the human response.

Tzeng, D.‐Y. and Berns, R.S. (2005). A review of principal component analysis and its applications to color technology. Color Research & Application 30: 84–98.

This article explains PCA and how it is used in color technology including confidence ellipsoids, estimating the spectral properties of colorants from a dataset of mixtures, and spectral reconstruction using several principal components.

Wintringham, W.T. (1951). Color television and colorimetry. Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 39: 1135–1172.

This is a summary of colorimetry and its application to broadcast television. The article was very timely because color television signal processing was standardized in 1953.

Wright, W.D. (1981a). The historical and experimental background to the 1931 CIE system of colorimetry. In: Golden Jubilee of Colour in the CIE: Proceeding of a Symposium Held at Imperial College, London, 3–18. Bradford: Society of Dyers and Colourists.

The 1931 standard observer is based on experiments by Wright and Guild. This paper tells the story. This is required reading for anyone wanting a deeper understanding of CIE colorimetry.

Wyble, D.R. and Berns, R.S. (2000). A critical review of spectral models applied to binary color printing. Color Research & Application 25: 4–19.

Predicting spectral reflectance factor and color statistics from primary ink amounts has been a research topic for nearly 100 years. This article reviews empirical and first‐principles models.

Wyble, D.R. and Rich, D.C. (2007a). Evaluation of methods for verifying the performance of color‐measuring instruments. Part I: Repeatability. Color Research & Application 32: 166–175.

Wyble, D.R. and Rich, D.C. (2007b). Evaluation of methods for verifying the performance of color‐measuring instruments. Part II: inter‐instrument reproducibility. Color Research & Application 32: 176–194.

This pair of articles describes current practices to quantify precision using the Lucideon ceramic tiles. The authors describe both univariate and multivariate methods. Analyses are performed on both spectral and colorimetric data. Hotelling's T‐squared statistic is used to test statistical significance of interinstrument reproducibility.

Zhao, Y. and Berns, R.S. (2009). Predicting the spectral reflectance factor of translucent paints using Kubelka‐Munk turbid media theory: review and evaluation. Color Research & Application 34: 417–431.

Before the use of multiflux optical models, Kubelka–Munk theory was used to model paints not at complete hiding. This article reviews the more popular approaches and includes experimental results.

Zwinkels, J.C. (1989). Errors in colorimetry caused by the measuring instrument. Textile Chemist and Colorist 21: 23–29.

A well‐written summary article describing common sources of error in spectrophotometers. This is a good starting point to understand these errors.