6.1 Introduction

Creativity is an essential part of innovative product development and the origin of successful products. Several methods support activities in developing innovative products, one of them is the Theory of the Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ).

TRIZ (pronounced TREEZ) is a Russian acronym: “теория решения изобретательских задач”

Literally: TRIZ is “a problem‐solving, analysis and forecasting tool derived from the study of patterns of invention in the global patent literature” [1].

TRIZ is a theory for solving inventive problems. It supports the idea that unresolved problems are the result of conflicting goals (constraints) and unproductive thinking. It suggests breaking out of a nonproductive thinking mold by reframing the contradicting and competing goals in such a way that the contradictions disappear [2].

TRIZ is a state‐of‐the‐art technology for innovation that can be used in many industries and sciences. TRIZ is a systematic process that develops critical thinking skills and encourages creativity and innovation. TRIZ elements can be used effectively by a wide range of people – from children to adults. The origin of TRIZ is derived from experimental data, patents, and the documentation of how innovative people solved inventory problems [3].

It was developed by the Soviet inventor and science‐fiction author Genrich Altshuller (1926–1998) and his colleagues, beginning in 1946. In English the name is typically rendered as “the theory of inventive problem solving” and occasionally abbreviated in English as TIPS [4].

“TRIZ is a systematic approach for understanding and solving problems which allows clear thinking and the generation of innovative ideas” [5].

TRIZ is a problem solving and brainstorming technique that that is especially popular among design engineers [6].

TRIZ provides a wide range of domestic products and services for the chemical, petrochemical, gas transportation, oil‐producing, energy, and other industries.

TRIZ is one of the leading companies in the machine‐building industry with a complete production cycle from design to service, and specializes in the production of compressors, pumps, and auxiliary equipment. The company also provides services for the repair, reconstruction, increase of reliability, productivity, dynamic stability, resource, and service life of dynamic equipment from various manufacturers.

TRIZ's intellectual and production capabilities enable the implementation of projects for the reconstruction and modernization of equipment without the involvement of contractors, which makes it possible to continuously monitor all production processes.

TRIZ systematically expands production facilities using modern equipment in order to fully and timely meet customer needs.

TRIZ is a comprehensive source of resources and services for the largest companies in Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Poland, and other countries in Europe and Asia [7].

TRIZ is a young but evolving science. TRIZ is evolving not only deeper, but also broadly (expanding), creating for the exact sciences. Today, TRIZ begins to penetrate scientific and artistic systems. There was a time when trying to formulate the principles for solving a creative technical problem seemed timid and hesitant [8].

TRIZ is almost certain to produce a simpler, less expensive, and more effective solution than what would otherwise be obtained [9].

One can think of TRIZ as another way of Lateral Thinking.

TRIZ is based on two basic principles:

1. Someone, sometime, somewhere has already solved your problem or one similar to it. Creativity means finding that solution and adapting it to the current problem
2. Do not accept contradictions. Resolve them [10].

TRIZ is unique because of its “problematic” approach. In particular, TRIZ faces all possible problems as a conflict of two different situations that are not usually applicable to each other. As a tool developed by engineers, there may be 40 industry‐oriented TRIZ principles, however, they can apply to business sector or even everyday problems.

TRIZ can be done in three main steps;

1. Define the problem and the expression of the contradiction in a clear and simple way.
2. As a system, approach the problem and control all interactions and stakeholders at the time of zooming in and out of the system over time. Nine Window Technique is the most appropriate method for such an analysis.
3. Identify the most powerful principles that can be used for the respective problem and easily come up with creative ideas to improve the strategy [11].

Altshuller concluded that similar approaches, used in many different areas, have created very effective solutions in his research. The creators have repeatedly reviewed these solutions.

During his research, Altshuller felt the need for creativity theory with the following conditions;

1. Being regular and systematic.
2. Take the lead to place the ideal solution in a very wide solution space.
3. Reproducibility and reliability, but it does not depend on psychological tools.
4. Access to creative information.
5. Add creative acknowledgment.

The benefit of TRIZ is that conflicts and contradictions can be resolved using innovative solutions. The three basic principles of TRIZ are as follows;

1. The ideal design is the goal.
2. Contradictions help to solve problems.
3. The innovation process can be systematically configured.

6.2 Basic Structure of TRIZ

TRIZ is a structure with innovative philosophy, methods, and tools (Figure 6.1). The TRIZ philosophy of excellence displays resources and contradictions. The most important tool of TRIZ is ARIZ. ARIZ is a creative algorithm for problem solving. The most widely used TRIZ tool is the Contradiction Matrix (Appendix 6.A).

Altshuller describes TRIZ as “a methodology that disciplines thinking to stimulate the inspiration that leads to daring solutions to problems” [12].

The thinking about a problem's solution must begin with the “what is” of the problem space and move toward the “what will be” of the solution space [13].

Application of the TRIZ methodology provides the bridge between these two; it is the problem space which is characterized and resolved. TRIZ has the reputation as the only systematic problem solving and innovation tool‐kit available.

The TRIZ toolkit consists of several tools; each of them is most effective against a separate type of problem [14], but they can all be used in relation to each other.

TRIZ is not so much a theory as it is a global practice used by some of the world's most innovative companies. Some of these include Proctor & Gamble, Boeing, Siemens, 3M, Hewlett‐Packard, Eli Lilly, Honeywell, NASA, Toyota, Intel, Johnson & Johnson, Motorola, and many more. Although TRIZ is used in a wide range of industries and organizations, it is still a relatively undiscovered method. Part of this is due to its abstract nature, even if it is something that gives TRIZ the innovative problem‐solving power. The other part is that the entire business is nowhere in the S‐curve where it has embraced innovation as a systematic driving force – although it is close and some companies have taken the path [15].

TRIZ is a large and accurate toolkit, but many tools overlap, because TRIZ is designed to fit a variety of problem‐solving techniques. Part of TRIZ's ingenuity is that it allows people to create their own TRIZ personalized tool that best fits their problem‐solving style. It's a bit like having a gym with a wide range of equipment – people choose and use only a fraction of that equipment, depending on what suits them and what fitness problem they choose. The TRIZ toolbox is almost identical – there are tools that have specific goals and tools that one uses extensively [16].

The tools that make up this method include Inventive Principles, Evolution Laws, Smart Little People, Ideality, Substance‐Field Analysis (SFA), Flow Analysis, Feature Transfer, Standard Solutions, Separation Principles, Multiscreen (9‐windows), Trimming, and Contradiction. It must be noted that Contradiction is on the most used tool. This process is very powerful for breaking down existing design paradigms and moving on to new and exciting ones [17].

Systematic Innovation works on several levels: (Figure 6.2) first, a set of tools; second, a complete process that links different tools together for any given innovation situation; and third, a set of philosophical ideas [18].

The philosophy of TRIZ: TRIZ is a powerful problem‐solving philosophy based on logic and data. You can solve specific problems by applying generic solutions to similar issues.

It is designed to estimate creative problem solving and product design.

It is designed to establish principles that are common to all fields of technology.

It is designed to eliminate contradictions.

It is designed to use materials, energy, and knowledge effectively to create beneficial effects [19].

6.3 Level of Invention

Through the analysis of many inventions in the development of TRIZ, Genrich Altshuller discovered that different inventions involve different levels of creativity. Therefore, it seems that different tools and techniques are needed to create all types of inventions. (Obviously, the invention of the pencil with an internal eraser is very different from the invention of the steam engine.) In the late 1960s, Altshuller defined various levels for inventive problems related to;

1. The number of trial‐and‐error attempts required to guarantee a solution of a certain level.
2. The scale of change imposed on the original system. According to Altshuller, inventive problems can be divided into five levels, as follows:

   LEVEL 1 – Apparent (no invention). ~1–10 solutions are considered.

   Established solutions; well‐known, and easily accessible.

   LEVEL 2 – Improvement. ~10–100 solutions considered.

   Existing system improved, usually with some compromise (example; bifocals).

   LEVEL 3 – Invention within paradigm. ~100–1000 solutions considered.

   A concept for a new generation of an existing system (example; automatic transmission).

   LEVEL 4 – Invention outside paradigm. ~1000–100 000 solutions considered.

   A new concept for performing the primary function of an existing system (example; jet aircraft, integrated circuit).

   LEVEL 5 – Discovery. More than 100 000 solutions considered.

   Pioneering invention of an essentially new system (example; laser, radio) [21].

6.4 History of TRIZ

In 1946, Genrich Altshuller, a 20‐year‐old patent investigator, recognized the patterns of ordinary thinking when inventing and developed the basic idea of TRIZ theory. He sent a proposal to Joseph Stalin, but was sent to a camp in Siberia, where he continued to develop his ideas. He was released after five years, published his work from TRIZ, and opened a number of TRIZ schools in various parts of the Soviet Union. His activities were banned in 1974, but he was allowed to return during the Perestroika years. During these 50‐plus years of development, thousands of researchers/engineers have been involved in TRIZ research and development to claim the world's patents, i.e. 2.5 million patents in total, as is sometimes being claimed, in its technological semantics and to establish the system of the TRIZ methodology.

Since the 1980s, especially after the end of the Cold War, a number of ex‐USSR TRIZ specialists immigrated to the western countries and brought TRIZ ideas with them. Sweden, the US, and Israel were active in receiving them. Particularly in the United States, some companies have started developing software tools of TRIZ. In Japan, introduction/promotion activities have been started in a significant scale only since 1997 [22].

For a period from 1970 to 1980, many TRIZ schools were opened throughout the Soviet Union, training hundreds of students, and during this time, Altshuller traveled there to conduct seminars. This phase ended in 1980 when the first TRIZ special conference was held in Petrozavodsk, Russia. In the next period, from 1980 to 1985, TRIZ received quite a bit of publicity in the Soviet Union. Many people became familiar with TRIZ and Altshuller veterans, and the first TRIZ specialists and semiprofessionals appeared. Altshuller was highly efficient at developing his TRIZ model due to the large number of seminars he conducted, the various TRIZ schools that were founded, and the followers of those who joined the ranks, allowing for the rapid testing of ideas and tools. TRIZ schools in St. Petersburg, Kishinev, Minsk, Novosibirsk, and other cities became very active under Altshuller's leadership.

In 1986, the situation changed dramatically. Altshuller's deteriorating health limited his ability to work on TRIZ and control its growth, and for the first time in the history of TRIZ, perestroika allowed it to be used commercially. The Russian TRIZ Association was founded in 1989 with Altshuller as president.

The economic situation in the former Soviet Union worsened from 1991 onwards, and many capable TRIZ professionals, most of whom had established their own businesses, were forced to emigrate. Many TRIZ professionals immigrated to the United States and began promoting TRIZ individually. Others found international partners and established TRIZ companies.

There are many consultants and companies today that offer training, consulting, and software tools. http://Trizjournal.com is a source for the dissemination of knowledge and information about the development and application of TRIZ worldwide [23].

6.5 About the Founder of TRIZ

6.6 Contradiction as a Means to Formulate an Inventive Problem

In TRIZ matrix terminology, a problem is often called a contradiction. This is because the Russian scientist realized that improving the product on the one hand would make it worse on the other.

There are two types of system contradictions.

Technical Contradictions (TCs), where the improvement of one characteristic degrades a different characteristic (power vs. weight, speed vs. size, etc.). Traditionally, this contradiction has led to system compromise. TRIZ seeks to eliminate the contradiction and prevent compromise.

Physical Contradictions (PC), where the characteristics of the system contradicts itself (i.e. they must be both higher and lower, present and absent, etc.). TRIZ tries to turn PCs into TCs [25].

Here are examples of some common TCs that are often encountered:

• As the product gets stronger, its weight begins to increase.
• Large engines improve acceleration, but also increase vehicle costs.
• As the service is customized for each customer, the service delivery system becomes complex.
• Training is inclusive, but it distracts employees from their regular assignments [26].
• As the car accelerates (improves), both the fuel and the emissions get worse.
• The braking system is very responsive, but the rotors break down quickly.
• These parts are easy to assemble, but difficult to disassemble.
• The product becomes stronger (improved), but its weight increases (bad).
• We improve the ability of our workers (good), then they find other jobs (bad).
• Exercise is good for you, but it is relatively uncomfortable and time consuming (bad) [27].

Here are some classic examples of PCs:

• Coffee should be warm enough to drink, but cold enough to prevent burning the mouth.
• The software should be sophisticated enough to accommodate interesting features, but it should be simple enough to be user‐friendly.
• Training should be complete enough, but it should be quick enough not to waste more time.
• The temperature must be high enough to melt a mixture quickly, but it must be low enough to reach a homogeneous mixture in the cooling.
• The wing of the plane should have a large area (to provide an elevator for takeoff and landing), but the same wing should have a small area (to reduce drag and achieve greater speed).
• The car airbag should be deployed quickly (to protect the adult passenger), but should also be deployed slowly (to avoid injuring a child passenger).
• To draw fine lines, the tip of the pen should be both sharp and smooth to prevent the paper from tearing.
• The office temperature should not be too hot to be comfortable for Sue or too cold for Sam to be comfortable.
• The surgeon has to spend a lot of time cleaning to prevent infection, but he has to scrub quickly because everyone is waiting.
• Aircraft landing gear must be present for take‐off and landing, and absent (to prevent dragging) during flight.

Probably the strongest point of TRIZ's approach is that its goal is to solve so‐called contradictions. While the traditional engineering approach is to find compromise, or trade‐off, for contradictions, TRIZ tries to resolve contradictions on a regular basis. It does this by identifying the reason why progress is impossible. Using 40 innovative principles offers a solution to contradictions [28].

Problem solving often involves understanding and resolving conflicting requirements – improvement in one area is the detriment of something else (TCs), or we may want to do the same in opposite situations but at different times or places. An umbrella should be small and large (physical contrasts).

Once we understand the conflict in the required conditions, we can use the TRIZ processes to discover the contradictions and the tools to resolve them [29].

TC means that when parameter “A” changes, another “B” changes at the same time in one system. For example, power versus fuel consumption and weight versus power in the car system. Problems related to technical conflict can be solved through the contradiction matrix and related inventive principles. After interpreting these principles, solutions were found using the TRIZ method. As shown in Figure 6.3, by reducing the contrast, one parameter “A” improves without the other parameter “B” becoming worse [30].

6.7 Procedure of Inventive Design

The 40 inventive principles and contradiction elimination of TRIZ techniques are good ways to solve the problem of innovative engineering design with system contradictions. TRIZ does not create successful solutions by “better brainstorming” or teaching people to “think creatively.” In dealing with contradictions, TRIZ provides breakthrough solutions by providing tools to find the problem behind the problem and eliminate it. The general method for inventive design with TRIZ is shown in Figure 6.4 [31].

There are the 39 domains (technical parameters) defined in TRIZ as the source of the contradiction. Most inventions are related to contradiction resolution. Differences between the two items occur; one is what you are looking for and the other is what you would expect.

For example, to make the car accelerate faster, you may put a larger engine in it, but the weight of the engine reduces its performance. This is the contrast between strength (you want) and weight (which you do not want) [32].

6.8 Concept Development Using TRIZ

The patterns and lines of evolution of the technology system are useful in identifying new ideas, but they are not specific concepts of next‐generation technologies. Concept development for next generation technologies should be completed after generating ideas. There are two types of problems for developing the concept, as follows:

• Transition from one stage of evolution to a higher stage if there is no technical or PC. The next generation of inventions cannot be fully developed unless the contradictions of these system are resolved.
• The direction or ideas of high potential for the next generation of inventions are known, but the physics to realize that direction are missing.

The TRIZ Tools which are useful for use in these situations are inventive principles, standard solutions, and effects; Figure 6.5 shows this. The ideas are first analyzed and then decisions are made. If there are contradictions, inventive principles or standard solutions are chosen to resolve them. If there is no contradiction, meaning that physics is lost for the realization of ideas, effects must be chosen. New concepts developed are evaluated. If one or two concepts are accepted they are input into the design and manufacture process, otherwise they should be returned to the idea analysis.

There are two types of inventive principles for resolving technical and physical conflicts. 39 engineering parameters and a matrix are used to select a few of the 40 principles, which are related to resolving a particular conflict. There are four principles of separation to resolve PCs; they are selected according to space, time, conditions, or parts of the whole.

In TRIZ there are 76 standard solutions that are divided into 5 classes. First, Substance‐Field models are developed to solve the problem. Then, a standard solution from class 1 to class 4 is selected by the Su‐Field model and a solution is obtained from that. Class 5 is last to be used to correct the pre‐solution, and the final solution is obtained.

Impacts in TRIZ are useful for creating physics or working principles to realize the ideas generated in Fuzzy Front End (FFE). About 10 000 effects have been described in the sciences, including physics, mathematics, chemistry, and so on. Some of them may be used to determine the principles of work in product design.

An ordinary engineer usually knows about 100 effects, so a data base of effects is a type of assistant tool for product designers. Some computer‐aided innovation (CAI) software is needed as a tool or assistance. These include databases for evolution, principles, standard solutions, and effects. Many companies in the developed world have used them, for example GM, MADMAX, DARPA, REVEO, and partners who they took advantage of this program [33].

6.9 Contradiction Matrix (39 × 39)

The paradox and contradiction appear when the search to improve one desirable feature makes another desirable worse! Solving a typical problem usually leads to a compromise solution. As mentioned earlier, the most innovative solution is achieved when a technical problem containing a contradiction is solved by the complete elimination of the contradiction.

Altshuller, from his research on more than 40 000 of the most patented inventions, found that there were only “39 features” that could either be improved or destroyed. Therefore, any problem can be described as a conflict between a pair of parameters (2 of 39 parameters).

In the past, many patents have resolved these individual conflicts in a number of different contexts. Conflicts were resolved over and over again, sometimes several years apart. He concluded that the “40 Principles of Invention” were used to fully resolve these contradictions, and not as a trade‐off or compromise. He added: “If the second researchers had known these preliminary results, they would have solved their problems more easily.”

Altshuller therefore seeks to extract and organize common contradictions and principles for resolving these contradictions. He uses it in the form of a matrix of 39 improving parameters and 39 worsening parameters (39 × 39 matrix) with each cell entering the most innovative principles (maximum 4). This matrix is known as the “CONTRADICTION MATRIX” and is still the simplest and easiest TRIZ tool. (See Contradiction Matrix) [34].

Assuming we improve the speed of the car by installing a larger engine, the mileage will be affected; this creates a “contradiction.” The challenge that TRIZ has addressed is how to improve one or more features without compromising the performance of the other features. The Russian scientist found this issue at the core of all patents that were being filed. He also found that most of the “contradictions” faced by different industries are the same. For example, cost versus speed, accuracy versus speed, and so on.

Because the contradictions are more or less the same across industries, so are their solutions. The creators of the TRIZ matrix recorded their solutions in what is called the 40 problem‐solving inventive principles [35].

6.9.2 List of the 40 Principles

One of the tools used to overcome TCs is called “principles.” TRIZ offers 40 inventive principles to resolve contradictions in the system. The 40 principles for implementing a technical system and within are a general suggestion. Altshuller discovered these principles in the research and synthesis of thousands of patents. These were some of the keys to how innovative people could solve problems that were pioneering and independent of industry or science. These principles are general enough to be applied to various problems, products, and industries to create innovative solutions. TRIZ has laid the groundwork for systematic innovation and provided a constantly evolving discipline for organized learning. 40 TRIZ Principles are a list of known solutions. Studying these existing solutions can inspire you to solve new problems and come up with innovative solutions [39] Table 6.1.

6.10 Using the TRIZ Matrix

The TRIZ matrix is at the heart of the TRIZ problem solving methodology. Therefore before we begin understanding the specific steps that apply to the TRIZ method, it is essential that we understand the logic behind those steps, i.e. the TRIZ problem solving methodology.

6.10.2 Reality of the “Four‐Box Scheme” Theory

As the fundamental general scheme of problem solving, the Four‐Box Scheme has been recommended not only in TRIZ, but also more widely in science and technology. For solving a user's specific problem, the scheme describes converting the problem into a generalized problem at an abstract level, finding a generalized solution to it with reference to some known models, and then interpreting it back into a specific solution in the user's real situation. To assist problem solvers in this scheme, TRIZ, science, and technology in general have developed a variety of knowledge bases and theories. The current general situation is shown in Figure 6.7

The accumulated models and knowledge bases are presented to the users in parallel as a wide range of different alternative advices, suggestions, or hints.

A guidance which is either irrelevant to the case or is proved to be wrong and inappropriate is neither effective nor reliable. There is no clear general way to select the models; the ways of abstracting the problem into the model are often vague, and the ways of concretizing the model solution to specific solutions rely on intuition.

Thus the “Four‐Box Scheme” in theory places problem‐solvers in an ambiguous (obscure) world. The contents of the “Four Boxes” have yet to be described in a meaningful, yet general, way to cover the field of creative problem solving in technology [40].

TRIZ method for solving problems:

1. Identify the problem of the current project;
2. Compare the problem to an existing TRIZ general problem, as discussed later;
3. Identify the TRIZ solution for the general problem;
4. Use the suggested solution to determine the problem of the project.

For example: Intersection of external damaging factors and functional time of stationary object in the contradiction matrix (Figure 6.8): 17 – Transition into another dimension, 1 – Segmentation, 40 – Composite materials, 33 – Homogeneity [41].

6.11 Physical Contradiction Resolution

A systematic creativity process may consist of four major steps. As shown in Figure 6.9, definition is the first step. The second step is to select the most appropriate tools. The third step is to try to generate solutions. The fourth step is to evaluate and down‐select.

PC: An action should be provided to achieve useful results and not provided to avoid harmful result. PC describes opposite requirements to the same parameter.

Separation principles help when some PC stands between you and an innovation, and you need to resolve the conflict with minimal or no trade‐off. For example, you need the water in the system to be hot for some functions but cold for others.

The separation principles come from the TRIZ, and they are defined a little differently by different experts. For simplicity, we characterize the separation principles by separating contradictory properties in time, space, scale, and condition.

TCs are typically related to properties of the entire technical system, but PCs relate to physical properties of one characteristic of an element of the system. The Tables 6.2 and 6.3 give some examples for these types of contradictions.

Contradictions arise in this process when technical requests are made to improve the existing system. An important concept to note is that based on any TC, we can find the physical cause of the contradiction. Almost all TCs can be turned into a corresponding PC. When we turn our TC into a PC, we define a specific physical problem that can be easily solved using “physical” principles and physical, chemical, and geometric effects along with other phenomena [42].

A PC exists when solving a problem in one parameter of a system is improved and the same parameter of that system is also degraded.

Algorithm for the resolution of a PC:

1. Establish a specific problem;
2. Through analogy, establish a generic problem by determining the bi‐polarity within one parameter;
3. Apply the separation principles to generate generic solutions;
4. By analogy, determine specific solutions from the set of generic solutions;
5. First, create a particular problem. You want to experience high impact responses from a supportive audience, and I want to experience less impact responses from a critical audience;
6. Next, determine if it is bipolar;
7. High impact and low impact responses;
8. Then we use the principles of separation to form general solutions and produce specific solutions by analogy [43].

When dealing with a known PC, one can use one of the following four principles for overcoming this type of contradiction.

1. Separation in time: We use the separation principles to form generic solutions, and by analogy, generate specific solutions changing a property, response, or behavior vs. time.

   By time separation, inconsistencies can be resolved by identifying a time period in which one function is performed and another time period in which another function is performed. It resolves these contradictions as long as the separations do not overlap in time.

   Example: Water faucet

   The contradicting requirements for a water faucet are; (i) the water must be BLOCKED, and (ii) the water must FLOW. These contradicting requirements can be separated in time; (i) the water should be BLOCKED during the time the faucet is shut, and (ii) the water should FLOW during the time the faucet is open (Figure 6.10).

   

2. Separation in space: Changing the property, response, or behavior based on a special location.

   Separation in space can resolve contradictions in which two or more contradictory systems requirements must be fulfilled, at the same time. That is, if an object is required to have property “A” and not have property “A,” then one can separate the object into two objects, each with its own properties. Conversely, the contradiction may be resolved if one part of the object has property “A" and the other part does not have it.

   

   Example: Hot and cold Water faucet

   The contradicting requirements for a water faucet are; (i) the water must be hot, and (ii) the water must be cold. These contradicting requirements can be separated in space. There is one faucet and two handles; one for hot water and another for cold water (Figure 6.11).

3. Separation between parts and the whole: Changing a property so as to make it different in the sub‐system/system/supersystem.

   Resolving contradictions by way of separation between the parts and the whole may be employed when contradictory requirements state that a system exhibits specific properties, and at the same time and space, one or more of its parts exhibits opposing properties.

   Example: Motorcycle chain

   The contradicting requirements for a mechanical force transmission system between a motorcycle engine sprocket and a rear‐wheel sprocket are; (i) the transmission system must be RIGID in order to transmit force and match properly with the two sprockets, and (ii) the transmission system must be FLEXIBLE in order to wrap around the two rotating sprockets (Figure 6.12).

The property expressed at the micro level (the chains links) is rigid when made to interface with the sprockets' teeth as well as each other by way of hinging pins. However, the overall system behavior expressed at the macro level (i.e. the motorcycle chain) is flexible [44].

4. Separation upon condition: Where a physical property of a system changes in response to an external condition

   Example: An interesting consumer example of separation upon condition is the new Crayola^® product for kids to color. It uses a special crayon and paper design, which only enables coloring on a specialty paper that you must buy from Crayola. The crayons will not write on walls! (Figure 6.13).

The inventive principles most applicable to separation in space include segmentation, taking out/trimming, local quality, asymmetry, nested doll, other way around, curvature, another dimension, intermediary, copying, and flexible shells/thin films.

The inventive principles most applicable to separation in time include preliminary anti‐action, preliminary action, beforehand cushioning, dynamism, partial or excessive action, mechanical vibration, periodic action, continuity of useful action, skipping, copying, discarding and recovering, and thermal expansion.

The inventive principles that can be used for condition‐based separation – the physical properties of a system in response to an external condition – are mechanics substitution, pneumatics and hydraulics, porous materials, color changes, parameter changes, phase transition, and strong oxidants [45].

6.12 Ideality and the Ideal Final Result (IFR)

The TRIZ concept of Ideal Final Result (IFR) suggests that we determine what is ideally expected in a problem situation, irrespective of whether it is possible or not. The ideality of a product, process, or situation is achieved when all the functions of the product or process are achieved without facing any problems or cost [46].

Ideality is one of the building blocks of the TRIZ logic. Defining ideality is helpful to understanding where you currently are. You can use it to describe where you want to get to, and it is essential when you are comparing options. Ideality is the ratio between all the good things you want (benefits) and any downsides (costs and harms).

Benefits divided by all costs, Formula (6.1).

(6.1)

Benefits are all good outcomes. A list of benefits is a list of all the things that you want, without any detail of how you get them (benefits cannot contain solutions).

Costs are all inputs required to create your system, not only money, but also time, resources, and energy.

Harms are all outcomes you don't want. Nothing is neutral in TRIZ; an outcome is either wanted (and a benefit) or not (and therefore a harm) [47].

According to TRIZ, the Ideal Final Goal is what we ultimately wish to achieve. The Ideal Final Product is no product; only the results.

The wants to achieve all the useful functions without any resources. In other words, the ideal product should need no space, no time, no cost, and no maintenance. The ideality is generally measured by the following function, Formula (6.2).

(6.2)

According to the above function, with the increase of positive features, the degree of ideality increases. Ideally, it becomes 100% when the system contains all the positive features or achieves all the desired functions without the need for any effort or cost, and without creating harmful effects. However, it is almost impossible to achieve the above definition of the ideal. Nevertheless, when it is not possible to achieve a 100% ideal, the next ideal level may be targeted. In general, the ideality of the system can be increased by using the following methods:

• increasing the useful functions (in the numerator of the fraction);
• decreasing the harmful functions and cost (in the denominator of the fraction);
• a combination of the above.

From commonsense point of view we can see that a higher level of ideality can be achieved by obtaining maximum results and by using minimum resources. In some cases, very complicated problems can be solved by using unwanted or harmful resources to produce something useful. Inventive Principle‐22: Blessings in disguise, also suggests the same; to turn harmful elements into useful resources. Let's see how to use the resources more effectively and efficiently [48].

The ideal anti‐corrosive material is no corrosion in material. The ideal corrosion solution is a “No Corrosion” environment without implementing any effort (Figure 6.14).

Useful effects include all the valuable results of the system's functioning. Harmful effects include undesired inputs such as cost, footprint, energy consumed, pollution, danger, corrosion, etc. The ideal state is one where there are only benefits and no harmful effects. It is to this state that product systems will evolve. From a design point of view, engineers must continue to pursue greater benefits and reduce cost of labor, materials, energy, and harmful side effects. Normally, when improving a benefit results in increased harmful effects, a trade‐off is made, but the Law of Ideality drives designs to eliminate or solve any trade‐offs or design contradictions. The IFR will eventually be a product where the beneficial function exists but the machine itself does not. The evolution of the mechanical spring‐driven watch into the electronic quartz crystal watch is an example of moving toward ideality.

Ideality is a powerful concept since it requires defining an ultimate system; an “ideal” system. An ideal system is a system which does not exist, but its function is delivered. Altshuller noted that increasing the degree of ideality is a trend which governs evolution of almost each technical system. The same happens with business systems; the more we can deliver with less, the more effective and efficient the system will be. For instance, introducing IT support helps businesses to greatly reduce expenses by automating business processes. Using web‐based marketing through social networks helps entrepreneurs reach millions of potential customers around the globe without leaving the house. Of course, a completely ideal system may not exist due to the law of energy preservation, but keeping the concept of ideality in mind when solving problems or designing new systems provides a platform for the “right thinking.”

Although new management methods, such as Lean and Six Sigma, also increase the degree of idealism, they only do so within a certain range, while TRIZ techniques help to make disruptive changes to the ideal degree. Existence of systems will increase sharply; that's why many Six Sigma professionals learn TRIZ and integrate TRIZ with Six Sigma practices [49].

An ideal system does not exist, but all of its functions are fulfilled at the right time and at the right place; without energy, substance, or other resources, and without any ill effects.

(6.3)

Here:

I – idealization level (dimensionless performance);

F – useful function (effect);

Q – quality of useful function;

C – time and mean cost for useful function implementation;

H – nuisances;

α, β – accommodation coefficients.

Common sense suggests that the value of useful functions should increase, and the cost and nuisances should decrease, and then the ideality increases. When the numerator approaches infinity or the denominator approaches zero, this will occur.

It is often assumed that growth is the ideal attribute of progress, and therefore the traditional method of increasing numerator and reducing denominators seems justified. A. Seredinski has suggested expanding this concept [50].

If one looks at the ideality formula from a mathematical point of view, it becomes necessary to analyze all the other possibilities. We present the formula in a simple way (6.4).

The idealization level Formula (6.3) can be shown as:

(6.4)

Values of numerator and denominator can change; they can decrease, remain constant, or increase. We shall consider all of the possibilities and construct Table 6.4 where the rows will specify the types of “behavior” of a numerator, and the columns specify a denominator. The arrow, when pointing upwards, means growth, and when pointing downwards, means reduction. In cells where a line and column cross, we shall mark the “behavior” of ideality. Double arrows mean strong change.

Let's look at all nine cells.

The increase in degree of ideality is traditional, and is considered to be a simultaneous increase of the numerator and decrease of the denominator – as shown in cell #7. Cells #4 and #8 also characterize growth of ideality, though it is as not as rapidly as in cell #7.

Cell #3 shows the worst alternative. If the sum of useful functions decrease, and the harmful functions and costs increase, it leads to a sharp decline in ideality. Ideality also decreases in cells #2 and #6, though not as fast as in cell #3.

A constant ideality is shown in cell #5.

What is happening in the cells located on the ends of a diagonal, cells #1 and #9? The answer is not obvious. What occurs if the numerator and denominator either increase or decrease simultaneously?

For the answer to this question we will use simple reasoning.

Let us assume that the numerator has increased by four times, and the denominator by two times. Naturally, the factor of ideality will increase by two times, and vice‐versa. Therefore, it seems that ideality can also grow when both the numerator and the denominator change “in the same direction,” i.e. both either increase or decrease [51].

6.13 TRIZ Crossover QMS

Today, quality practitioners are placing considerable emphasis on achieving compliance with Quality Management Standards (QMS) (i.e. ISO 9001, EN 15224, ISO/TS16949, etc.) which are essential to ensure compatibility in the supply chain. TRIZ is a tool to improve creativity, which is needed to help solve difficult problems or predict the future development of systems. Most often it is helpful in situations that present a serious threat to the organization's survival (i.e. a competitor has better products or services at lower prices, the cost of materials is increasing faster than the prices of our products, or we could improve our market position if we could improve xxx). Predictions about the future form the basis upon which all decisions are made, and any improvement requires the prediction of evolution. To find the best solution the cooperation of interdisciplinary teams is required, which is why we decided to develop a tool based on merging Deming's System of Profound Knowledge with Altshuller's Theory of Inventive Problem‐Solving. Such a tool will enable us to fulfill Fignebaum's foundation for business success; Innovate in product, service leadership, and cycle‐time management.

To use TRIZ tools for improving your QMS, consider your organization as a system generating value. The concept of value can be used as a quality measurement indicator.

In the modern management approach, the strategic focus is on the ratio of value and costs. The difference between value and costs creates a variety of strategic options for setting the competitive price.

In order to compete in the new global economy, we must invent products and services that are of high value to customers and are produced by less expensive processes and systems. TRIZ crossover QMS is a tool that can help quality managers think outside the box to find the right solutions for clients and organizational needs, and be implemented with available resources [52].

6.14 The Evolutionary S‐Curve

The evolutionary s‐curve governs the evolvement of all systems. Research on the dynamics of evolution has also shown that all successful innovations are stimulated by an ideal end state. That end‐state – defined as an Ideal Final Result (IFR) – is that the system delivers the functions and benefits that a customer requires, without any cost or negative harms. While this end‐state might often sound somewhat theoretical, there are many examples of systems and components that have evolved to such a state. What Figure 6.15 shows is that the dynamic of evolution toward this end‐state occurs through a succession of s‐curves. Key to the understanding of the overall dynamic is the recognition that all systems hit fundamental limits; the flattened profile at the top of an s‐curve is not an indication that the market or engineers cease to be interested in improving a system, rather that something emerges to prevent the improvement from taking place. In other words, a conflict or contradiction arises and a system thus breaks a fundamental limit. Therefore, the only way to cross this fundamental limit is to find a new s‐curve. Finding a new s‐curve means resolving the contradiction [53].

The concept of an ideal final result is related to the concept of an “Ideal System,” i.e. a system that does not exist (does not require time, effort, use of any source or place), while at the same time performing its functions fully. For the issue chosen at the previous step an IFR is formulated.

Possible options (in ideality decreasing order, with corresponding shifts from reasons to consequences):

• The problem goes away on its own;
• The required action happens by itself;
• The undesirable effect disappears by itself;
• The undesirable effect is compensated by itself;
• Attitude toward the undesired effect becomes negative.

The IFR in terms of the functional analysis is shown below.

(“Reason‐Consequence” and “System to Supersystem” scale‐wise):

• The need for the function of this element disappears;
• The necessity of the function of this element disappears;
• The function is performed by the object itself;
• The function is performed by other elements of the given system;
• Operation is performed by the nearest system or a subsystem [54].

6.15 Nine Windows

Nine Windows is a tool commonly used in TRIZ. This tool is based on the concept that we usually see the world through a window. This tool forces us to observe and evaluate the world through nine windows; considering the past, present, and future in combination with the system, subsystem, and supersystem level. This is presented as a 3 × 3 matrix, as shown in Figure 6.16; by looking at the past, present, and future, we can get a historical perspective and context of the existing problem. In addition, by examining the problem of a system, system and environment (supersystem), and subsystem, one can understand the overall system and its structure/relationships [55].

• Super‐system (or Macro system): External environment and components that the problem or system interacts or may interact with.
• System: The problem or system that has been created.
• Subsystem (or Micro system): A component or parts of the problem or system.

To complete the System row, list what started the problem in the Past/System cell, and then list the target – where the project will ideally end up after solving – in the Future/System cell.

To complete the Super‐system row, first list all the things a person can do to prevent the current problem (in the environment where the system works) in the Past/Super‐system cell. Next, list all the items that can be listed in the Future/Super‐system cell correct the problem.

Once the team has reviewed both the problem and the system in the present, move on to the past and future. To do this, list all the things that can be done in the past to prevent problems in the Past/Subsystem cell. Then list all the things one can do in the future (if the problem still exists) in the Future/Subsystem cell. Explore all nine windows by asking:

• Can the company or team do something at the subsystem, system, or supersystem level in advance to correct or prevent the problem or improve the system?
• Can the company or team do something at the subsystem, system, or supersystem level in the future to correct or prevent the problem or improve the system?
• Can the company or team do something at the subsystem, system, or supersystem level in the present to correct or prevent the problem or improve the system?

6.16 Trends of Engineering System Evolution

These trends are a set of “empirical directions derived from the development of the engineering system that describes the natural transfer of engineering systems from one state to another.” This process was initially achieved by analyzing thousands of patents. They have been validated by careful study of the history of technology, and today it is said that these trends are true for all categories of engineering systems.

Figure 6.17 shows the hierarchical nature of these trends and high‐level categories. For each of these trends, there are usually several sub‐trends that describe slightly different directions. The bottom line, according to those who use it, is that the way your product may grow over time is predictable; if you understand these trends, you can predict how the next generation of your product will take shape. Therefore, with the availability of technology to realize (or create) this next generation, you should be able to be one step ahead of your competition.

As an example, one of the most important trends in product evolution is the “Trend of Increasing Value.” For this purpose, value is defined as being equal to total functionality, F/total cost, C. The trend states that an engineering system evolves over time so that its value always increases.

Think of this as an analogy to Darwinian evolution; just as plants and animals continuously compete in their environments for territory, food, and reproductive success, your products are competing in the marketplace for sales, shelf space, and market share. Over time, you will succeed by bringing the best overall value to the market, in comparison to your competitors.

Defining value as F/C is important and suggests many different strategies for increasing value. Which approach you take should be tied to where your product lies on its S-curve of evolution? The Trends of Increasing Value and S-Curve Evolution in (figure 6.18) illustrates a variety of strategies. For example, an appropriate strategy for the early part of Stage 2 is to significantly increase overall functionality while allowing costs to increase at a slower rate. Conversely, a good strategy for stage 3 is to keep functionality constant while reducing product costs. The timing of the change from one strategy to another is not always clear, as it is sometimes difficult to decide on the need to jump to a new s‐curve. Knowing that these changes in product development and pricing strategy are almost inevitable should encourage you to think about them regularly [56].

The evolution trend toward increasing ideality also applies in both technical and non‐technical contexts. In the technical context, this trend has a strong influence on many of the other evolutionary trends observed by TRIZ researchers.

Some of these trends may be seen to possess direct relevance in the non‐technical, business and, organizational contexts. Segmentation of substance and objects – a process that shows the transfer of objects from the macro to micro scale (Figure 6.19) is applied to the evolution of business from the perspective of both customers (“mass customization”) and organizations (evolution from “blue collar”). For example, “machinist” to “work team” to “worker” to “person”).

The evolution toward “fields” has relevance in the non‐technical context if the term is considered analogous to “emotions” or “feelings.” Figure 6.20 For example, many products are now designed to respond not only to customers, but also to customer spirit; e.g. hotel rooms which allow the occupant to alter the feel of a room through use of variable color lights.

6.17 Geometric Evolution of Linear Constructions

Figure 6.21 shows another trend with direct non‐technical corollaries. The trend may be seen to apply to a number of contexts in connection with both customers and internal organization and communication structures. For example, the evolution from individual artisans to 1D hierarchical organizations, to 2D matrix‐management structures, to the emerging 3D ‘spherical organizations, to – if ‘time’ is interpreted as a fourth dimension – the idea of time‐variant organization structures. The evolution in straws (Figure 6.22) is another good example for geometric evolution of linear constructions trend.

Mono‐Bi‐Poly is another trend with direct applicability in a non‐technical system evolution context. The mono‐bi‐poly trend shown in Figure 6.23 is particularly evident in symbiotic marketing applications such as the integration of film [57], soundtrack, and merchandising in the entertainment industry, or in a number of multi‐media applications [58].

The evolution in Swiss knives (Figure 6.24) and wrenches (Figure 6.25) are good examples for the mono‐bi‐poly trend.

A British Innovation Expert, Darrell Mann collected 31 different types of trends of evolution in his paper [59]. Twenty‐five of them have been chosen as the useful evolution rules to link with biological cases, as shown in the left side of Table 6.5.

6.18 Trimming

6.19 Input–Output–Trimming Operator (I–O–T)

The input–output–trimming operator is one of the best tools to express the problem correctly, if we need to create new concepts for existing machines, devices, or components.

We can think of any machine as a chain of energy conversion from input to output (according to TRIZ language we use the word “field” instead of “energy”).

For example, let's use the usual kitchen mixer. Here we have the chain of transformation of the following context:

Electric field (input) → Electromagnetic field → Mechanical field of motor rotation → Mechanical field of tool rotation → Mechanical field of mixture motion (output).

According to the I–O–T operator, we have to trim the chain and express the problem of the correct conversion of input to output without intermediate links. For example, we want to convert electrical energy (field) into components of mixture motion without intermediate links. Of course, we can modify and trim only part of our chain instead of the entire chain, then we have to express the trimming problem for the input and output of this part instead of the entire chain.

The next step is to find the physical effects that solve the problem of converting this input directly to this output and create a new concept(s) to implement this transformation. For example, for our mixer; the mixer can be made on the piezoelectric effect, or if we trim only part of the chain, we can use electromagnetic vibrators. An extraordinary solution is to use electrical discharges in liquids, for example, electro‐hydraulic shock, but I do not think so [61].

Like many TRIZ tools, trimming rules give you a specific set of steps that must be followed in a specific order. However, once you start generating ideas, you may find that you are moving in interesting directions that do not seem to be relevant to the task at hand.

The purpose of trimming rules is to make you think of other ways to achieve your goals. So, if you discover a rich window of new ideas that will lead you to interesting and useful tips, definitely follow them, provided you are thinking of new solutions and generating interesting suggestions and points for discussion.

This seam will naturally be less efficient and you will eventually run out of steam; at this point you need to get back to work. Following the Trimming Rules steps ensures that you cover all possible solutions. If you are thinking of solutions that do not seem to be related to the TRIZ task, that is fine. Do not waste energy and put them in the reverse process. Just go ahead and go back to following the steps.

If you come up with something out of the ordinary, then you're usefully coming up with new solutions. However, always make sure you do not stop early, get back on track. Just because you had good ideas in the past does not mean that you will not think of better ideas; let yourself be surprised! Following the trend means that you can be sure that you have been looking for any possible solution.

Trimming Infinity and Beyond – Trim and trim again if you are looking for completely innovative concepts.

When do you stop trimming? When you've gone too far. Knowing how much to measure is difficult, so a good rule of thumb is to keep trimming until you get something out of it. Suddenly your useful function is lost and your system no longer works. At that point, take a step back.

Trimming begins as a thinking exercise; as you trim, you see new ways your system can work and you develop conceptual solutions. This time of thinking is (relatively) inexpensive, and in a few minutes you will realize that deleting another component will make everything wrong. At that point you will find that you've pushed yourself – and your system – as far as it can go. You keep going because the more trimming you do, the more innovative your solutions will be. Figure 6.26 graphically shows the relationship between your trimming and the final system innovation you create.

When you get to the very deep stage of trimming – for example, you have already modified a part that you used to present your prime function, or re‐trimmed a system that has already been trimmed – you can ask completely different questions about how it works and possibly consider new technology offering new opportunities. Eventually, you will build a much better system.

An example of deep trimming is online grocery shopping that shortens and trims the actual time you spend in a physical store. The functions of grocery stores are now separated in a timely manner; you create your list online and choose the food you want while you are still at home – the actual delivery and putting away of the food is much later. This provides extra benefits that you can see very early; both for holidays (which often require a lot of other work) and for your comfort (in the middle of the night, while at home on the sofa watching TV). The cost of your time is also reduced because you do not need to travel to and around the store, and your time and energy to shop is reduced because you do not need to pick up items, put them in your trolley, then on the conveyor, pack them, load them in the car, and take them home; all these steps are done by someone else. The dangers and stresses of walking around a crowded supermarket (especially with small children!) are gone. Other additional benefits are available, such as the potential for a wider range of products. Some household items can be easily ordered automatically every week. Plus, you also get to buy exactly what you need, without being tracked by attractive supermarket displays [62].

6.20 Resource Analysis

Resources play a key role in TRIZ while solving a problem. Proper use of existing resources helps to achieve cost‐effective and ideal solutions without the complexity of the system and the introduction of expensive components and new materials. Resources are available at both system and subsystem levels, and can be tangible (e.g. substances, fields) and immaterial (e.g. information). Although resource analysis was originally part of ARIZ, today resource analysis is used alongside other TRIZ techniques [63].

Terninko, Zusman, and Zlotin (1998) and Pannenbaecker (2001) divide resources into six categories; (i) substances, (ii) fields, (iii) functional, (iv) informational, (v) time, and (vi) spatial.

1. Substances (material) are any materials of which the system and its surroundings are composed. Readily available resources include raw materials or semi‐finished products, as well as waste or lack of material.
2. Fields (energy) are any type of energy in or around the system, e.g. gravity, light, or electromagnetic radiation.
3. Functional resources are any type of effects. They include the capability of a system or its surroundings to perform additional functions. Another feature is an additional (unexpected) benefit that arises as a result of innovation, e.g. producing heat from cow dung (methane).
4. Informational resources are any tangible information. Additional information about the system could be extracted from existing fields in a system. For example, the crankshaft carries not only strength, but also information; the speed of pressing together.
5. Time resources are any kind of time including time intervals before, during, and after a process, e.g. use of online access to a computer.
6. Spatial resources (space) are free, unused space in a system or its environment [64], e.g. use of the interior of spare wheel space in a car [65].

After selecting the contradiction to solve, we must prepare a list of the available resources within the systemic context of the contradiction (Table 6.6), which is done in accordance with classical TRIZ methods [66]:

6.21 Function Analysis

Altshuller understood the importance of a functional approach to problem solving since the early days of TRIZ. For example, his concept of the ideal system states that the ideal system performs its function but does not exist, meaning that the ideal system performs its function free of charge and with no harm. However, the need to integrate performance analysis into TRIZ was identified after developing methods to solve generic problems in innovation. Function analysis plays a major role in problem formulation. Here we describe an advanced development called the Tool‐Object‐Product (TOP) Function Analysis and its benefits.

6.22 Substance‐Field Analysis

Altshuller developed a method and a set of symbols to describe generic types of problems and their solutions; the method was called SFA. Altshuller's model of the simplest useful system is composed of three elements; the two substances and the field. We can see examples of this in Figures 6.27–6.29.

Althsuller's SFA enables you to describe models of systems to be improved and models of improved systems. These are a set of the 76 most effective generic transitions from models to models of improved systems, which he called Standard Solutions to Inventive Problems. Substance‐Field models describe system models rather than functions. However, to support function analysis, you must describe models of functions.

6.23 Tool‐Object‐Product (TOP) Function Analysis

TOP Analysis, the next generation of material‐field analysis, was developed by Zinovy Royzen in 1989. The simplest useful function has four components: a function (or function provider); a function target (or instrument function receiver); a tool function in the object; and the function product. Useful function is a tool to obtain the product of the function of the object. The action is described with an arrow, which simplifies the models in Figures 6.30 and 6.31.

Very often a useful action also causes an unwanted effect, or an attempt to improve a function leads to deterioration in another function of the system. Conflicts are the most difficult type of problem in innovation, and TRIZ offers models to describe any type of conflict (Figure 6.32).

Modeling a function by describing all four components – the tool, the object, the action, and the product – improves understanding of both the function and the best methods for its improvement. The following sections describe some of the advantages of TOP Function Modeling.

6.24 Generic Model of a Function

Neither the tool of the function nor the object of the function should matter. TOP Function Modeling allows you to model any function in any system. It is a more generic method of modeling a function than Substance‐Field Modeling.

6.25 TRIZ Offers Five Basic Function Models

1. Adequate useful function (may require technology forecasting).
2. Insufficient useful function (needs to be improved).
3. Absent useful function (needs to be introduced).
4. Harmful or undesired function (needs to be removed).
5. Unknown undesired function (need to reveal the cause) [67].

6.26 Psychological Inertia

The psychological meaning of the word “inertia” means a reluctance to change; a certain bafflement due to human programming. It shows the inevitability of behaving in a certain way; the way that has been indelibly inscribed somewhere in the brain. It also indicates the impossibility – as long as a person is guided by their habits – of ever behaving in a better way [68].

Gordon Cameron identifies eight routine causes of psychological inertia:

1. Having a fixed view (model) of the solution or the root cause.
2. False assumptions (trust in data).
3. Specific terminology in a language that is a strong carrier of psychological inertia.
4. Experience, expertise, and trust in previous results.
5. Limited knowledge, hidden resources, or mechanisms.
6. Inflexibility (model worship), trying to prove a particular theory, stubbornness.
7. Reusing the same strategy.
8. Rushing to a solution, incomplete thinking [69].

Psychological stillness reflects many barriers to personal creativity and problem‐solving ability. In problem solving, it is the inner, automatic voice of psychological inertia that whispers, “You are not allowed to do this” or “Tradition wants to do this” [70].

In the past, many methods and tools have been developed to deal with uncertainty by describing the conceptual design phase of a new product. In particular, TRIZ has been shown in several industrial fields to be a powerful tool in guiding designers to define innovative features for mechanical products.

This structural method of inventive problem solving aims to overcome the psychological inertia that can hinder the achievement of an optimum design, replaces the non‐systematic trial and error approach, and helps engineers “find the right way” in searching for a solution (Figure 6.33).

TRIZ is based on the hypothesis that a few universal principles of invention are the basis of all creative innovation. Therefore, after identification and coding, these principles may be applied to make the invention process more predictable. This TRIZ knowledge‐base may support design teams to deal with the poor nature of the PSS design problem, in which one or more steps are often either unknown or incoherent, there is insufficient information in the initial state, or the properties of the goals are not fully defined in advance [71].

6.27 Size‐Time–Cost Operator

The Size–Time–Cost (STC) Operator heuristic engages a user in redesigning a problematic situation. The STC operator suggests six conditions for situation improvement. A user is expected to think of her/his actions when each of the three parameters (size, time, and cost) sequentially reaches two limits; zero and infinity (e.g. what would I do if I had ZERO budget for progress?) [72]. If any of these features are exaggerated, how can I solve the problem?

Size: the size of the Operational Zone (OZ); Where does conflict occur?

Time: the Operational Time (OT); When does conflict occur?

Cost: the cost of the known solution or assigned to the operation cost.

The STC operator can be used to overcome psychological barriers. It is in the form of a simple matrix (Table 6.7) in which the three parameters (size, time, and cost) can assume two opposite values; zero and infinite [16].

STC, is the three‐dimensional thinking between 0 and ∞, and exaggerated thinking is a tool to challenge perceptions of constraint (Figure 6.34).

For example, considering cell number one in Table 6.7, the questions to be formulated are: “If the system size increases infinitely, what can be done to solve the problem?” Similarly, in cell number six, the question that is formulated is: “If system costs are to be zero, what can be done to solve the problem?”

First, the STC operator (size, time, and cost) was used to change the parameters during the problem analysis process. The TRIZ developers then tried to go beyond such parameters and the performance of the resulting model was satisfactory. For example, if a system has a pressure parameter, the value of the analysis is the result of reducing this parameter to a minimum or, conversely, increasing it infinitely. Thus the STC operator became a scaling operator; one of the properties of the selected object and its variations along the axis (from zero to infinity) are considered.

However, some parameters cannot be changed along a line. Variability in the broadest sense presupposes selecting and changing a feature of the object. At the same time, changes in the entire multi‐screen scheme caused by changes in a single parameter must be analyzed [73].

6.28 Applying the 40 Inventive Principles in Corrosion Management

1. Segmentation
   1. Divide an object into independent parts.
   2. Make an object sectional (for easy assembly or disassembly).
   3. Increase the degree of an object's segmentation.

      Examples:

      • Cast iron radiator in even number of sections, up to 44 sections. Each section can be exchanged after corrosion.
      • Divide car components into different parts and components.
      • Use powdered welding metal instead of foil or rod to get better penetration of the joint.
      • The corrosion area segmentation.
      • Multi‐pin connectors.
      • Corrosion can be divided into three main groups: 1; Wet corrosion, 2; Corrosion in other fluids, 3; Dry corrosion.
2. Extraction (Extracting, Retrieving, Removing)
   1. Extract the “disturbing” part or property from an object.
   2. Extract only the necessary part or property from an object.

   Examples:

   • Air conditioning in the room where you want it, with the noise of the system outside the room.
   • Using anti‐corrosion gutters to remove rainwater from the building.
   • Using anti‐corrosion chimney design so as not to disturb different parts of the building.
   • Clean off any corrosion before applying the paint.
   • Often it is possible to chemically remove the products of corrosion. For example, phosphoric acid in the form of naval jelly is often applied to ferrous tools or surfaces to remove rust.
   • Several standard methods for corrosion removal are available. The methods normally used to remove corrosion are mechanical and chemical. Mechanical methods include hand sanding using abrasive mat, abrasive paper, or metal wool; and powered mechanical sanding, grinding, and buffing, using abrasive mat, grinding wheels, sanding discs, and abrasive rubber mats. However, the method used depends upon the metal and the degree of corrosion.
   • Aircraft must be kept clean and corrosion‐free at all times.
3. Local Quality
   1. Transition from homogeneous to heterogeneous structure of an object or outside environment (action).
   2. Different parts of an object should carry out different functions.
   3. Each part of an object should be placed under conditions that are most favorable for its operation.

   Examples:

   • Material surface treatments/coatings; plating.
   • Erosion/corrosion protection, case hardening, non‐stick, etc.
   • Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion occurring in confined spaces (crevices), to which the access of the working fluid from the environment is limited.
   • Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface.
   • There is a lot of corrosion on the bottom of the car.
   • Use a gradient instead of constant temperature, density, or pressure.
   • Localized Corrosion: The most common, and most detrimental, form of localized corrosion is pitting. Pitting means when the attack happens in one single location on the surface and creates a pit, or small cavity, in the metal. This type of corrosion attack is hard to prevent, engineer against, and often times difficult to detect before structural failure is met due to cracking. Pipes are often compromised due to pitting.
4. Asymmetry
   1. Replace symmetrical form(s) with asymmetrical form(s).
   2. If an object is already asymmetrical, increase its degree of asymmetry.

   Examples:

   • Eccentric drive.
   • Wing design compensated for asymmetric flow produced by propeller.
   • Asymmetrical electrodes (AEs) of mild steel can lead to increase of the current noise detection. This phenomenon can occur if an oxide layer is formed on the alloy surface.
   • An electrical furnace has electrodes asymmetrically placed permitting the continuous loading of ore and discharge of molten metal.
   • To improve mixing, use asymmetrical tank or asymmetric blade in a symmetric tank.
   • Both the corrosion pattern and the corrosion intensity play an important role in the ductile properties. The asymmetrical distribution of the corrosion around the surface is a decisive factor, which can influence the ultimate strain at maximum force more seriously.
5. Consolidation
   1. Consolidate in space homogeneous objects, or objects destined for contiguous operations.
   2. Consolidate in time homogeneous or contiguous operations.

   Examples:

   • Combine harvester.
   • Manufacture cells.
   • Combined hot and cold water taps.
   • Bundle of tubes in a heat exchanger in order to increase transfer and decrease the size.
6. Universality
   1. An object can perform several different functions; therefore, other elements can be removed.
   2. Use standardized features.

   Examples:

   • Generalized corrosion: Typically never happens, aside from in acidic conditions. This uniform corrosion over the entire surface of the metal is rare and leads to overall thinning, which has little effect outside of fatigue and stress conditions.
   • Uniform corrosion: The most common variety of corrosion, such as rusting of iron. Other metals and alloys also corrode uniformly such as aluminum, copper, brass, and magnesium.
   • In a crusher with several cylinders, the cylinders turn for grinding and simultaneously they are cooling to avoid overheating (of cylinders and product).
   • The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a recognized world leader in the field of development and supply of international standards. Rust inhibitors are put through a standard industry test known as the ASTM D665 Rusting Test.
7. Nesting
   1. One object is placed inside another, that object is placed inside a third one, and so on.
   2. An object passes through a cavity in another object.

   Examples:

   • Nested dolls (Russian)
   • Ant‐nest corrosion is a type of premature and localized failure, which is observed in Cu tubes used mainly in air‐conditioning and heat exchanger units, induced by the presence of organic matter.
   • Heat exchanger principle; both cold stream and hot stream pass through tubes (one inside the other outside) to exchange heat with the other stream.
8. Counterweight
   1. Compensate for the weight of an object by combining it with another object that provides a lifting force.
   2. Compensate for the weight of an object with aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces influenced by the outside environment.

   Examples:

   • As the percentage of aluminum rises, and all strongly resisting corrosion in air or seawater.
   • Zinc is used to protect other metals from corrosion.
   • Hydrofoils lift ships out of the water to reduce drag.
   • Forklift counterweights are commonly made of metals.
   • Iron and cast iron counterweights are often used in elevators. Steel counterweights are suitable for scaffolding and may weigh as much as 7000 lbs. Tungsten counterweights are designed for aircraft control surfaces, aircraft rotor blades, guidance platforms, and vibration‐dampening governors.
9. Prior Counteraction
   1. Preload counter tension to an object to compensate excessive and undesirable stress.

   Examples:

   • Prepare a system with an inhibitive shape for avoiding corrosion.
   • Corrosion can be prevented through using multiple products and techniques including painting, sacrificial anodes, cathodic protection (electroplating), and natural products of corrosion itself.
   • Galvanizing: Coating iron or steel with zinc to prevent corrosion is known as galvanizing.
   • Car underbody is sprayed with anti‐corrosion paint to prevent rusting.
   • Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and preventing corrosion.
   • Pre‐cleaning before epitaxy, oxidation, diffusion, metallization, etc.
10. Prior Action
    1. Perform required changes to an object completely or partially, in advance.
    2. Place objects in advance so that they can be put into action immediately from the most convenient location.

    Examples:

    • Create beforehand stresses in an object that will oppose known undesirable working stresses later on, and prepare a system with an inhibitive shape for avoiding corrosion.
    • Handling of a particularly corrosive wastewater would be reason for planning in advance the procedure to be used in the event that tubing failure during operation was detected. Such a procedure might be to immediately begin injection of a non‐corrosive liquid into the well until the well bore was completely cleared, then to shut the well in until the reservoir pressure had died away to a level that would allow removal of the damaged tubing without backflow of the corrosive wastewater. Such a procedure would help to prevent damage to the casing, packer, etc.
11. Cushion in Advance
    1. Compensate for the relatively low reliability of an object with emergency measures prepared in advance.

    Examples:

    • In a heat conducting system with salts, the pipe must be preheated to avoid crystallization.
    • Put an emergency stop system on a process.
    • Clean water for emergency use should be available in the immediate work area before starting work for removing rust and corrosion from objects.
    • Materials splashed in the eyes should be promptly flushed out with water, and medical aid obtained for the injured person.
    • Suitable fire extinguishing equipment should be available to the cleaning/treating area.
    • If materials (acid, alkali, paint remover, or conversion coatings) are spilled on equipment and/or tools, treat immediately by rinsing with clean water, if possible, and/or neutralizing acids with baking soda and alkalis with a weak (5%) solution of acetic acid in water.
    • Corrosion management includes planning actions for corrosion mitigation and prevention. This is achieved by use of anti‐corrosion measures, corrosion monitoring, regular inspection, and study of each accident, implementation of meetings, publications of minutes, education, and knowledge transfer.
12. Equipotentiality
    1. Change the condition of the work in such a way that it will not require lifting or lowering an object.

    Examples:

    • Any efforts directed at making corrosion control easier for operating personnel are highly relevant. In attempting to improve corrosion ergonomics, interactions among several human sub‐factors such as design, procurement, manufacturers, engineers, and users need to be considered.
    • Equipotential of corroded surfaces.
    • Equipotentiality of the workstation.
    • In general, corrosion threats should be mitigated to a point where the expenditure of resources is balanced against the benefits gained. One outcome of this is that a financial analysis might conclude that a technically sound corrosion mitigation action is unjustified. To determine whether a corrosion management investment is appropriate, it can be compared to the potential corrosion consequence through a return on investment (ROI) analysis. ROI is a benefit (or return) of an investment divided by its cost.
13. Do It in Reverse
    1. Instead of the direct action dictated by a problem, implement an opposite action (i.e. cooling instead of heating).
    2. Make the movable part of an object, or outside environment, stationary – and a stationary part moveable.
    3. Turn an object upside‐down.

    Examples:

    • Iron ore is a combination of minerals from which metallic iron can be extracted.
    • Corrosion is the reverse process of metallurgy. In other words, the energy used to transform ore into a metal is reversed as the metal is exposed to oxygen and water. As the metal is exposed to these elements, the corrosion process begins, oxides are formed on the surface, and in some cases combine with sulfides and carbonates.
    • Anodization is the process of converting an anode into a cathode by bringing a more active anode in contact with it.
    • Rotate the part instead of the tool.
    • The major anti‐corrosion strategies are:
      • The selection of appropriate materials;
      • The design of the product;
      • Protective methods (coatings, anodes, etc.);
      • Correct installation and maintenance;
      • Research, development, and testing.
14. Spheroidality
    1. Replace linear parts with curved parts, flat surfaces with spherical surfaces, and cube shapes with ball shapes.
    2. Use rollers, balls, spirals.
    3. Replace linear motion with rotational motion; utilize centrifugal force.

    Examples:

    • Corrosion tests in a rotary drum furnace.
    • Rotary blower with corrosion‐resistant abradable coating.
    • The swirler is formed from a powder‐sintered compact of martensitic stainless steel having corrosion resistance and wear resistance. They show greater resistance to corrosion, have better bendability, and are fire‐resistant.
    • Corrosive products inside the spherical vessel also cause internal corrosion.
    • Rust or corrosion can lead to significant damage to bearings.
15. Dynamicity
    1. Characteristics of an object or outdoor environment must be altered to provide optimal performance at each stage of an operation.
    2. If an object is immobile, make it mobile. Make it interchangeable.
    3. Divide an object into elements capable of changing their position relative to each other.

    Examples:

    • Adjustable steering wheel (or seat, back support, or mirror position).
    • Static and dynamic corrosion tests in liquid Pb–Bi eutectic.
    • Dynamic corrosion is defined as the corrosion that occurs under mechanical actions such as sliding friction, which exposes fresh surfaces and accelerates wear.
    • Corrosion dynamic test is still a key step for carmakers.
16. Partial or Excessive Action
    1. If it is difficult to obtain 100% of a desired effect, achieve more or less of the desired effect.

    Examples:

    • Some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable.
    • Partial or excessive corrosion.
    • Over‐spray when painting, then remove excess.
    • Good corrosion management aims to maintain, at a minimum life cycle cost, the levels of corrosion within predetermined acceptable limits. This requires that, where appropriate, corrosion control measures be introduced and their effectiveness ensured by judicious, and not excessive, corrosion monitoring and inspection.
17. Transition into a New Dimension
    1. Transition one‐dimensional movement, or placement, of objects into two‐dimensional; two‐dimensional to three‐dimensional, etc.
    2. Utilize multi‐level composition of objects.
    3. Incline an object, or place it on its side.
    4. Utilize the opposite side of a given surface.
    5. Project optical lines onto neighboring areas, or onto the reverse side, of an object.

    Examples:

    • Dump truck.
    • Heat exchanger with a bundle of tubes (instead of one tube).
    • Corrosion caused by magnesium salts, often presents in large amount in underground and seawater.
    • Corrosion protection coating of three‐dimensional metal structure by electrophoretic deposition of graphene oxide.
18. Mechanical Vibration
    1. Utilize oscillation.
    2. If oscillation exists, increase its frequency to ultrasonic.
    3. Use the frequency of resonance.
    4. Replace mechanical vibrations with piezovibrations.
    5. Use ultrasonic vibrations in conjunction with an electromagnetic field.

    Examples:

    • It is clear that ultrasonic vibrations can have profound effects on electrochemical reactions, but there is little evidence of vibration‐induced changes for frequencies less than ~10 kc/s.
    • Vibration effect on corrosion wear.
    • Mixing alloys in an induction furnace.
    • Ultrasonic testing to monitor corrosion.
    • Modeling and simulation of pipeline corrosion in the oil and gas industries.
19. Periodic Action
    1. Replace a continuous action with a periodic one (impulse).
    2. If the action is already periodic, change its frequency.
    3. Use pauses between impulses to provide additional action.

    Examples:

    • Hitting something repeatedly with a hammer.
    • In a batch production, the periods of apparatus inactivity are used for cleaning or to realize a new production.
    • Periodic corrosion testing is the best preventive measure to avoid component failure or complete shutdown.
    • Periodic corrosion control of aircraft will reduce aircraft fires and accidents, and at the same time increase the quality of maintenance, thereby increasing the operational readiness of the deterrent force.
20. Continuity of Useful Action
    1. Carry out an action without a break. All parts of the object should constantly operate at full capacity.
    2. Remove idle and intermediate motion.
    3. Replace “back‐and‐forth” motion with a rotating one.

    Examples:

    • Electrical continuity testing corrosion.
    • Feed unit operation continuously (reactor, distillation column) instead of batch operating conditions.
    • A Corrosion Management System (CMS) is the documented set of processes and procedures required for planning, executing, and continually improving the ability of an organization to manage the threat of corrosion for existing and future assets and asset systems.
21. Rushing Through
    1. Perform harmful and hazardous operations at a very high speed.

    Examples:

    • Use catalyst to accelerate chemical reaction to avoid sub‐product formation.
    • Alkali metals like sodium need to be stored in oil as they corrode quickly.
    • Metals usually corrode faster if they are wet.
    • Oxy‐fuel cutting is a chemical reaction between pure oxygen and steel to form iron oxide. It can be described as rapid, controlled rusting.
    • Corrosion and wear‐protection with ultra‐high‐speed laser material deposition process.
22. Convert Harm Into Benefit
    1. Utilize harmful factors, especially environmental, to obtain a positive effect.
    2. Remove one harmful factor by combining it with another harmful factor.
    3. Increase the degree of harmful action to such an extent that it ceases to be harmful.

    Examples:

    • The formation of oxides on stainless steels can provide a protective layer preventing further atmospheric attack, allowing for a material to be used for sustained periods at both room and high temperatures in hostile conditions.
    • Passivation: Some corrosion processes will create solid metal compounds that will coat the initial site of corrosion and prevent further corrosion at that site.
    • Biofilm coatings: A new form of protection has been developed by applying certain species of bacterial films to the surface of metals in highly corrosive environments. This process increases the corrosion resistance substantially.
23. Feedback
    1. Introduce feedback.
    2. If feedback already exists, change it.

    Examples:

    • Look for signs of corrosion.
    • If left unchecked, corrosion will eventually weaken the pipeline.
    • All planes are being inspected for possible cracking and corrosion.
    • Use corrosion control regulations.
    • Corrosion Monitoring Tracer (CMT) can indicate rate of metal loss.
    • Monitoring corrosion of metals is essential for material evaluation studies, inhibitor selection, and for adopting protective measures to combat corrosion problems in operating plants. Measurements of direct weight loss are time consuming as compared to electrical or electrochemical testing.
    • Rust spots inside pipes can discolor water or pepper it with rust flakes. Rusty water can also taste or smell metallic, even when it's clear. If you notice discolored or metallic tasting water, contact a professional plumber for a more formal evaluation.
24. Mediator
    1. Use an intermediary object to transfer or carry out an action.
    2. Temporarily connect the original object to one that is easily removed.

    Examples:

    • Pot holder to carry hot dishes to the table.
    • A variety of instruments are used for testing and monitoring corrosion of metals.
    • The presence of an intermediate conversion layer is presumed to improve the corrosion resistance of the system.
    • Electron transfer mediators accelerated the microbiologically influenced corrosion against carbon steel by nitrate reducing Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm.
25. Self‐service
    1. An object must service itself and carry out supplementary and repair operations.
    2. Make use of waste material and energy.

    Examples:

    • Principle of recycling in chemical engineering process.
    • Heat recovery in process.
    • Interestingly, aluminum doesn't corrode, unlike other metals, even though it is reactive. This is because aluminum is covered by a layer of aluminum oxide already. This layer of aluminum oxide protects it from further corrosion.
    • Some metals acquire a natural passivity, or resistance, to corrosion. This occurs when the metal reacts with, or corrodes in, the oxygen in air. The result is a thin oxide film that blocks the metal's tendency to undergo further reaction. The patina that forms on copper and the weathering of certain sculpture materials are examples of this.
26. Copying
    1. A simplified and inexpensive copy should be used in place of a fragile original or an object that is inconvenient to operate.
    2. If a visible optical copy is used, replace it with an infrared or ultraviolet copy.
    3. Replace an object (or system of objects) with their optical image. The image can then be reduced or enlarged.

    Examples:

    • The use of X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy in corrosion science.
    • X‐ray diffraction (XRD) analyzer is used to identify the scaling or corrosion that causes blockages.
    • Using image‐analysis techniques for investigating localized corrosion processes.
    • Using statistical modeling and computer simulation of corrosion growth in aluminum alloy.
    • Modeling and simulation of corrosion and cathodic protection systems can be used to optimize the protection systems and reduce costs by orders of magnitude.
27. Dispose
    1. Replace an expensive object with an inexpensive one, compromising other properties (i.e. longevity).

    Examples:

    • Development of anti‐corrosion coating systems using disposable waste materials.
    • Improve corrosion resistance with low‐cost coating.
    • Paints provide a relatively inexpensive method of increasing corrosion resistance. However, the processes involved are highly inefficient; during application, up to 50% of the coating can evaporate and oven curing produces harmful byproducts that are both hazardous and expensive to dispose of at high volume.
28. Replacement of Mechanical System
    1. Replace a mechanical system with an optical, acoustical, thermal, or olfactory system.
    2. Use an electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic field to interact with an object.
    3. Replace fields that are:
       1. stationary with mobile;
       2. fixed with changing in time;
       3. random with structure.
    4. Use fields in conjunction with ferromagnetic materials.

    Examples:

    • Laser cleaning rust.
    • Electroplating is a process where a metal is coated by electrolytic deposition with chromium, silver, or another metal.
    • Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a DC power source (such as a cathodic protection rectifier). Anodes for ICCP systems are tubular and solid rod shapes of various specialized materials; these include high‐silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal oxide, or platinum coated titanium or niobium coated rod and wires.
29. Pneumatic or Hydraulic Constructions
    1. Replace solid parts of an object with a gas or liquid. These parts can now use air or water for inflation, or use pneumatic or hydrostatic cushions.

    Examples:

    • They are sprayed with oil to prevent corrosion.
    • “Corrosion in other fluids” refers to the corrosion of metals/alloys in non‐aqueous environments, such as fused salts, sometimes referred to as molten salts.
    • Using a pneumatic rust corrosion slag removing debarring tool.
    • Preventing corrosion in hydraulic fittings and applications requires proper material and plating selection.
    • Hydraulic fluids consist of rust inhibitors that create a protective film on metallic surfaces to prevent rust. The film cannot be negatively affected by water and will completely prevent rust once it settles throughout the hydraulic system.
30. Flexible Membranes or Thin Films
    1. Replace customary constructions with flexible membranes or thin films.
    2. Isolate an object from its outside environment with flexible membranes or thin films.

    Examples:

    • During galvanization, a coat of melted zinc is applied directly to the steel, protecting it from corrosion.
    • The US military shrink‐wraps equipment such as helicopters to protect them from corrosion, and thus save millions of dollars.
    • Passivation refers to the spontaneous formation of an ultrathin film of corrosion products, known as a passive film, on the metals surface which act as a barrier to further oxidation.
    • Car body is made up of thin flexible sheet metal to provide more safety at high impact.
    • Electroplating is the best way to apply a protective zinc layer to fasteners for one key reason; electroplating creates a thinner, more uniform layer of zinc on the work piece than hot dip galvanization or mechanical plating.
31. Porous Material
    1. Make an object porous, or use supplementary porous elements (inserts, covers, etc.).
    2. If an object is already porous, fill pores in advance with some substance.

    Examples:

    • Pitting corrosion occurs under certain conditions, and leads to accelerated corrosion in certain areas rather than uniform corrosion throughout the piece.
    • Crevice corrosion occurs in confined spaces where access of fluid from the environment is limited such as gaps and contact areas between parts, under gaskets or seals, inside cracks and seams, and spaces filled with deposits.
    • Use a porous metal mesh to wick excess solder away from a joint.
32. Changing the Color
    1. Change the color of an object or its environment.
    2. Change the degree of translucency of an object or its environment.
    3. Use color additives to observe an object or process which is difficult to see.
    4. If such additives are already used, employ luminescent traces or trace atoms.

    Examples:

    • Copper (Cu) corrodes and forms a basic green carbonate, and lead corrodes to form a white lead oxide or carbonate.
    • Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well‐known example of electrochemical corrosion. This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal and results in a distinctive orange coloration.
33. Homogeneity
    1. Objects interacting with the main object should be made out of the same material (or material with similar properties) as the main object.

    Examples:

    • Homogeneous corrosion refers to the corrosion occurring at almost the same rate on the surface of the steel pipe pile as for the wind turbine.
    • Uniform corrosion commonly occurs on metal surfaces having a homogeneity of chemical composition and of microstructure.
    • Duplex stainless steels, the cast equivalents of alloys 2205, 2507, J92205, and J93380, have similar properties and corrosion resistance.
34. Rejecting and Regenerating Parts
    1. After completing its function, or becoming useless, an element of an object is rejected (discarded, dissolved, evaporated, etc.) or modified during its work process.
    2. Used‐up parts of an object should be restored during its work.

    Examples:

    • Any batteries, pods, packs, or trays showing signs of corrosion or rust must be replaced.
    • Repair of corrosion damage includes removal of all corrosion and corrosion products.
    • As the steel surface “rusts” it creates a regenerating corrosion‐retarding layer that protects the main structure of the steel.
35. Transformation of Properties
    1. Change the physical state of the system.
    2. Change the concentration or density.
    3. Change the degree of flexibility.
    4. Change the temperature or volume.

    Examples:

    • Gold is a vital industrial metal, as it is an excellent conductor of electricity, it is extremely resistant to corrosion, and it is one of the most chemically stable of the elements, making it critically important in electronics and other high‐tech applications.
    • The corrosion properties of electroplated zinc will be enhanced when nickel is codeposited with it.
    • The change in appearance is a direct result of corrosion.
36. Phase Transition
    1. Using the phenomena of phase change (i.e. a change in volume, the liberation or absorption of heat, etc.).

    Examples:

    • Corrosion is defined as “an irreversible interfacial reaction of a material (metal, ceramic, and polymer) with its environment which results in consumption of the material or in dissolution into the material of a component of the environment.”
    • Use of heat pipes in radiator rather than metal tubes for high heat transfer at specified size.
    • Testing the change in volume due to corrosion of metals.
    • Phase Change Materials (PCMs) provide good potential for reducing energy consumption in thermal energy storage systems.
37. Thermal Expansion
    1. Use expansion or contraction of material by changing its temperature.
    2. Use various materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion.
       • The engine exhaust pipe is provided with flexible pipe elements, compensating for thermal expansion and reducing thermal stresses on rigid parts.
       • The expansion of the corrosion products (iron oxides) of carbon steel reinforcement structures may induce mechanical stress that can cause the formation of cracks and disrupt the concrete structure.
       • Lower thermal expansion reduces system stresses, higher thermal conductivity, lowers operating metal temperature, i.e. reduces corrosion.
38. Accelerated Oxidation
    1. Make transition from one level of oxidation to the next higher level:
       1. ambient air to oxygenate;
       2. oxygenated air to oxygen;
       3. oxygen to ionized oxygen;
       4. ionized oxygen to ozoned oxygen;
       5. ozoned oxygen to ozone;
       6. ozone to singlet oxygen.

    Examples:

    • Oxidation literally means “to combine with oxygen.” Corrosion occurs fastest when the metal is in contact with air, water, and salt.
    • In the most common use of the word, corrosion means electrochemical oxidation of metal in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen or sulfates.
    • A passivation technique using highly concentrated ozone has been developed for electropolished stainless steel tubing that supplies corrosive gases. The strong oxidizing ability of ozone enables the inner surface to form an anticorrosive passivation film with thickness up to 60 Å under room temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions.
39. Inert Environment
    1. Replace a normal environment with an inert one.
    2. Introduce a neutral substance or additives into an object.
    3. Carry out the process in a vacuum.

    Examples:

    • Stress‐corrosion occurs when a material exists in a relatively inert environment.
    • In recent years, the application of corrosion‐resistant vacuum pumps is more and more extensive. They are mainly used to transport corrosive or non‐allowed polluting media.
    • The upper deck in inert gas environments in cargo oil tanks (COT), and for pitting corrosion that occurs on the inner bottom in highly acidic environments.
40. Composite Materials
    1. Replace homogeneous materials with composite ones.

    Examples:

    • Galvanized zinc coatings on steel combine corrosion resistance with high strength to make an outstanding composite material.
    • An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloying is a process where metals like iron or steel are mixed with a less reactive metal like chromium, magnesium, etc., for protection against corrosion and to create non‐rusting alloys. For example, brass is an alloy which consists of copper and is an inexpensive and non‐reactive alloy. Another example of a non‐rusting alloy is stainless steel, a mixture of iron and carbon.
    • Aluminum is an important structural metal, but even aluminum goes under oxidation reactions. However, aluminum doesn't corrode or oxidize as rapidly as its reactivity suggests. An alloy of aluminum or any other metal like magnesium can make aluminum stronger, stiffer, and harder.
    • When steel is alloyed with nickel, its resistance to corrosion increases dramatically.

6.29 Conclusion

The proposed view on TRIZ helps to systematize TRIZ knowledge and brings more clarity into the issue of what TRIZ is and how to look at it.

TRIZ was invented by Genrich Altshuller in Russia by analyzing more than two million patents. He found recurring and typical patterns among high‐level inventions. The essence of this database has been compiled into a generic list of 40 inventive principles known as the TRIZ 40 Principles. TRIZ is based on the fundamental premise that problems occur due to PC or TC in the system. TRIZ provides 40 inventive principles to resolve contradictions in the system. The principles are generic enough to apply across different problems, products, and industries to create innovative solutions.

In this chapter we provide basic theoretical concepts and tools of TRIZ, along with definitions of inventive principles and many new examples and approaches from Altshuller’s practical experiences in applying the 40 Inventive Principles in corrosion management.

6.30 Glossary of TRIZ Terms

6.A TRIZ Contradiction Table

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