Notes

CHAPTER 1

1. Our definition of globalization is drawn from our colleague Barbara Parker’s work on this topic, 1998.

2. For insight as to what the dominant culture in the future might be, see Zakaria, 2008.

3. See Ritzer, 2008.

4. For more on this topic, see Smith & Bond, 1999.

5. For example, see the following: Hofstede, 1980; Schwartz, 1992; Trompenaars, 1993; and Triandis, 1972.

6. While this concept has gone by various names over the years, including intercultural competence, global mindset, and global competencies, the definition of the idea as a special type of intelligence can be attributed to Chris Earley in his 2002 article and in his 2003 book with Soon Ang.

7. Recently several approaches to measuring cultural intelligence have been developed. A measure of cultural intelligence as defined in this book has been developed by an international consortium of researchers called The Cultural Intelligence Project. The short form of this instrument is presented in the appendix.

8. Mindfulness as used in this book is conceptually equivalent to the construct called cultural metacognition in the academic literature.

CHAPTER 2

1. Adapted from Cushner & Brislin, 1996.

2. See Thomas et al., 2008.

3. Hofstede, 1980.

4. For an interesting discussion of organizational culture, see Deal & Kennedy, 1982.

5. For more information on the process of acculturation, see Berry, 1990.

6. Psychologists are just beginning to fully understand these so-called bicultural individuals. For examples of this research, see Benet-Martínez et al., 2006; and Fu et al., 2007.

7. Recent research suggests that the development of higher-order cognitive processes may be different depending on how individuals manage their multiple cultural identities. See Brannen et al., 2008.

8. The metaphor of an iceberg to represent culture comes from Schein, 1985.

9. The idea of tight and loose cultures comes from Pelto, 1968. See also Gelfand et al., 2011.

10. For a more complete discussion of convergence versus divergence of culture, see Smith and Bond, 1999; and Ralston et al., 1997.

11. For more on recontextualization, see Brannen, 2004.

12. Some researchers suggest that we can better describe cultures as being in states of multiple stable equilibriums because of the interaction of culture with other aspects of the environment. See Cohen, 2001.

13. The dimensions of individualism and collectivism have been used to explain and predict a diverse array of social behavior. However, some scholars have suggested that they have been overused and that other dimensions have been neglected. For example, see Earley & Gibson, 1998.

14. An extensive review of the causes and consequences of individualism and collectivism, including the relationship to affluence, family structure, health, religion, and politics, is contained in Triandis, 1995.

15. For additional information about these dimensions of culture, how they were derived, and the process of creating Figure 2.2, see Sagiv, 1995; Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz, 1994; and Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990.

16. See House et al., 2004.

17. See Peterson & Smith, 1997.

18. GLOBE value scores corrected for social desirability bias as reported in House et al., 2004.

CHAPTER 3

1. For more information on psychological scripts, see Abelson, 1981; Gioa & Poole, 1984; and Lord & Kernan, 1987.

2. Mindfulness is a concept that originated in Zen Buddhism. To learn more about the concept from this perspective, see the writings of the Buddhist monk Thích Nhất Hạnh, 1999 and 1991. Mindfulness was introduced into psychology literature by Langer, 1989, in her excellent book. Here we use the term more broadly to encompass what is called cultural metacognition in the academic literature. See Thomas et al., 2006, for more information.

3. The role models that are appropriate vary from culture to culture and are affected by such things as social class and gender. For example, it is much more appropriate for a young U.S. woman to model herself after a business executive than it would be for a Japanese woman to do so, and a tennis player would be a more desirable role model for an upper-class English boy than would a football (soccer) player.

4. The section on how culture affects behavior draws heavily on Thomas & Peterson, 2015.

5. Our approach to treating stereotypes as a natural outcome of social categorization is consistent with classic work on this topic. For example, see Ashmore & Del Boca, 1981.

6. Without wishing in any way to ignore or diminish the dreadful effects of racism in many countries around the world, in this book we assume that our readers do not harbor racist attitudes. That is, they acknowledge differences between groups but do not assume these differences imply superiority or inferiority. They may experience lack of understanding of other cultures and sometimes puzzlement, apprehension, even fear. But they do not feel antagonism, and to the extent that they do, they seek to overcome it. In this book we are assuming that readers have moved beyond the negative attitudes of racism and genuinely seek to manifest their recognition of the equality of all groups and their goodwill toward others in better understanding of these groups and improving relationships with them. Also, we recognize race is not really a physical category but a social construction (see Montagu, 1942). Realizing the inadequacy of the term, we (like many scholars) use it here as shorthand to refer to genetically induced variation in humans.

7. Adapted from Cushner & Brislin, 1996.

8. For a classic description of what managers do, see Mintzberg, 1973.

9. The idea of a repertoire of behaviors as a way to define the behavioral component of cultural intelligence resulted from numerous discussions with members of the International Organizations Network (ION), particularly Allan Bird, Mark Mendenhall, Joyce Osland, Nakiye Boyacigiller, and Schon Beechlor.

10. For more information on these skills, see Thomas et al., 2008; and Thomas & Fitzsimmons, 2008.

CHAPTER 4

1. For additional information on rational decision making in management and its limitations, see Bazerman, 1998.

2. For an example of two decision models, see Nisbett et al., 2001.

3. The problems associated with rational models presented here are based on the concept of bounded rationality. See March, 1978.

4. See Lindblom, 1959.

5. The notion of heuristics presented here is derived from a classic article by Tversky & Kahneman, 1980.

6. See March, 1978; March & Simon, 1958.

7. Maier, 1970.

8. These motivational biases are based on the effects of differences in the self-concepts of culturally different individuals. See, for example, Erez & Earley, 1993.

9. Bontempo, Lobel, and Triandis, 1990.

10. See, for example, Heine & Lehman, 1995; and Miyamoto & Ktayama, 2002.

11. Adapted from a case by Shekshnia & Puffer, 2003.

12. Guanxi is often translated as a network of relationships. It is, however, an indigenous Chinese construct that can only be properly understood within the Chinese context. See, for example, Gold et al., 2002.

13. Shackleton & Newell, 1994.

14. Pork barrel is a North American metaphor for the use of government funds for projects designed to please voters or legislators and win votes.

15. For more information on this central ethical question, see Donaldson, 1989.

16. The idea of a set of fundamental human rights that are invariant across cultures is central to moving beyond cultural relativism. See Donaldson, 1989; and Donaldson, 1996.

CHAPTER 5

1. Some vignettes condensed from cases by Cushner & Brislin, 1996.

2. The idea of cultural grounding in communication comes from Clark & Brennan, 1991.

3. Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between two thousand and ten thousand. However, the number in use by significant numbers of people is many fewer. In many countries there are at least two native languages, and in some cases, such as Papua New Guinea, there are hundreds.

4. The question of the optimal age to learn a foreign language has long been studied. For more information, see Asher & Garcia, 1969. There is little debate, however, about the fact that children pick up new languages naturally while older learners generally have to struggle long and hard to achieve even moderate fluency.

5. See, for example, Giles et al., 1973.

6. See Felson, 1978.

7. Adapted from a case in Thomas & Peterson, 2014. See also, the Japan Times, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2015/05/23/editorials/rakuten-forges-ahead-english/#.V2AzFCMrI6V.

8. For more information on this see Neeley, 2012.

9. This example taken from an interesting, informative, and humorous look at the English language by Bill Bryson, 2001.

10. This list of second-language strategies is adapted from Adler & Kiggundu, 1983.

11. Engholm, 1991.

12. The idea of social distance or, as it is also called, proxemics, is drawn from Hall, 1966.

13. See, for example, Andersen & Bowman, 1985; and Aronoff et al., 1992.

14. Ekman, 1982.

15. Graham, 1987.

16. See Gelfand & McCusker, 2002, 292–314.

CHAPTER 6

1. While this is a Western definition of leadership (see Yukl, 1994), some international consensus seems to be building toward this definition. See House et al., 1997, 535–625.

2. As appealing as the idea may be, certain characteristics of individuals that are consistently related to leader emergence or leader effectiveness have not been validated by the research. For more on this topic, see Dorfman, 1996, 276–349.

3. See Dorfman, 1996.

4. Al-Kubaisy, 1985.

5. Nakane, 1970.

6. Drucker, 1994.

7. Sorge, 1993, 65–87.

8. See Puffer, 1994.

9. Management by Objectives (MBO) is a management technique based on the findings of goal-setting theory. For more information on this topic, see Locke & Latham, 1984.

10. Adapted from an unpublished case by Stanislav V. Shekshnia.

11. For more about Carlos Ghosn, see an interview with him in Stahl & Brannen, 2013.

12. For more information on paternalism see Aycan, 2008, 219–238.

13. See for example, Casey, 1999.

14. This case is adapted from Shepherd, 2003.

15. For more information on transformational leadership, see Bass, 1985; and Conger & Kanungo, 1988.

16. For example, see House et al., 1997.

17. For an example of this effect, see Thomas & Ravlin, 1995.

CHAPTER 7

1. For more information on group processes, see Goodman et al., 1987; and Hackman, 1991.

2. Arrow & McGrath, 1995.

3. Janis, 1982.

4. Mullen & Baumeister, 1987.

5. This classic experiment is described in Ringelman, 1913.

6. Process losses among individualists and collectivists also involve the extent to which the group members believe they are interacting with their in-group. For more on this topic, see Earley, 1989; and Earley, 1993.

7. The three avenues of cultural influence on groups is described in more detail in Thomas et al., 1996.

8. For a summary of this research, see Goodman et al., 1986.

9. Nemeth, 1992.

10. For a more complete description of the effects of cultural distance, see Thomas & Peterson, 2014.

11. Pearce & Ravlin, 1987.

12. Based on Allport, 1954.

13. This case was adapted from Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000.

14. For more information on this emerging topic, see an excellent book edited by Gibson & Cohen, 2003.

CHAPTER 8

1. For additional information on the inadequacy of stereotypes and the need to understand them in context, see an excellent article by Osland & Bird, 2003.

2. This diagram is adapted from an idea first presented in an excellent book on global strategy by Govindarajan & Gupta, 2001.

3. The concept of social learning was introduced by Albert Bandura. For a more extensive discussion, see Bandura, 1977.

4. Adapted from a case by Govindarajan & Gupta (2001, 126) and from the experiences of our colleague Mary Yoko Brannen.

5. Used with permission of Kayoko Takeuchi.

6. Adapted from a case in Napier & Thomas, 2004.

7. The idea that all expatriates go through a U-curve of adjustment was first presented in Lysgaard, 1955; and Gullahorn & Gullahorn, 1963. However, recent research has suggested that this pattern of adjustment may be far from universal. See Black & Mendenhall, 1991.

8. Case adapted from McNulty & Inkson, 2013.

9. Case adapted from Inkson & Myers, 2003.

10. From Global Giving Matters, September–October 2004; Pless et al., 2011; and PwC website.

11. For more information on managing expatriates see McNulty & Inkson, 2013.