5
Broadcast Sales

This chapter considers

A broadcast station serves two kinds of customers:

Broadcast advertisers fall into three categories:

Time is sold to local and regional advertisers by members of the station’s sales staff called account executives. Sales to national advertisers are carried out by the station’s national sales manager or by its national sales representative, known as the station representative (station rep) company.

The sales department is the principal generator of revenues for the station. However, its ability to sell time is determined to a large degree by the program department’s success in drawing audiences, especially those that advertisers want to reach. Good programming attracts audiences, which in turn attract advertisers and dollars. The greater the sales revenues, the better the programming the station can provide. Together, therefore, the program department and the sales department are important parts of a cycle that has a major impact on the station’s financial strength.

THE SALES DEPARTMENT

The number of sales department employees of a particular station is influenced largely by market size. Local competitive conditions also may be influential. However, departments in markets of all sizes have similar responsibilities.

Functions

The major functions of the sales department are to

Organization

The staff and activities of the department are directed by a general sales manager (GSM), who answers to the general manager and whose specific responsibilities are described later. The following are the principal department staff:

National Sales Manager

Coordinating the sale of time to national advertisers through the station rep company and maintaining contacts with local offices of national accounts are the chief responsibilities of the national sales manager, who reports to the general sales manager. In many stations, the duties are carried out by the general sales manager.

Local Sales Manager

The local sales manager reports to the general sales manager and is responsible for

Account Executives

Account executives report to the local sales manager and

Co-op Coordinator

Many manufacturers reimburse retailers for part of the cost of advertising that promotes the manufacturer’s product. This arrangement is known as cooperative, or co-op, advertising, and stations often employ a coordinator to provide co-op data to account executives. However, the responsibilities may be more extensive and may consist of

In many stations, the co-op coordinator’s job has evolved to include vendor support programs. They will be discussed later in the chapter.

Once sales orders have been received and checked by the sales manager, they are confirmed and processed. Those are among the responsibilities of the traffic department, which often is a unit of the sales department. It is headed by a traffic manager, who reports to the general sales manager. The traffic department also

Clients who do not use the services of an advertising agency often require the station’s assistance in writing and producing commercials. The writing usually is assigned to copywriters in the continuity or creative services department, which may be a unit of the sales or program department and which is headed by a director. Commercial production is carried out by the production staff.

THE GENERAL SALES MANAGER

Responsibilities

Like all managers, the general sales manager plans, organizes, influences, and controls. The proportion of time spent on those and other functions varies. In a large station, for example, the position may be chiefly administrative. In a smaller station, the general sales manager may be a combination national and local/regional sales manager and account executive. However, included in the major responsibilities of most general sales managers are the following:

General sales managers engage in a variety of other duties, including the conduct of sales meetings, approval of account executive client lists, and the handling of house accounts, or accounts that require no selling or servicing and on which no commissions are paid. However, one of their most significant activities is the establishment of sales quotas.

The importance of revenue and expense projections in the preparation of the station’s annual budget was noted in Chapter 2, “Financial Management.” As the major generator of revenues, the sales department plays a key role in the station’s success. If its projections are unrealistic and fall short of expectations, cost-cutting measures will have to be introduced to keep the budget in balance. Those measures might include the termination of personnel and the modification or elimination of plans for equipment purchases, programming, promotion, and other areas of station operation.

To try to avoid such an upheaval, most sales departments establish attainable annual dollar targets. In many stations, account executives are asked to submit their sales goals for each month of the next fiscal or calendar year, reflecting adjustments for the number of weeks per month compared to the current year and the proposed percentage increase. The GSM and the local sales manager review them, determine their appropriateness, and make changes they deem necessary. Finally, the sales managers meet with each account executive and, together, the three agree on a final quota. In the meantime, the GSM consults with the station rep to settle on targets for national sales.

When these steps have been completed, the GSM sends to the general manager the department’s budget proposal listing projected revenues from local, regional, and national sales and estimated expenses. It is analyzed with the submissions from other departments, and adjustments are made to develop a balanced budget. They may consist of a reduction in requested expenditures, an increase in revenues, or both. If more revenues are called for, the GSM considers the options with the local sales manager, account executives, and the station rep, and higher goals are established by mutual agreement.

Monthly goals provide continuing, short-term targets. They may not always be met. A delay in receipt of an order, a change in a client’s advertising schedule, or a temporary lull in the economy can play havoc with an account executive’s expectations in a single month. Accordingly, much more serious attention is paid to the attainment of quarterly goals.

If business remains sluggish over an extended period, the general sales manager will contemplate steps to revive it. Rates may be lowered temporarily, for example. Additional sales incentives may be introduced. One station offered a ski trip to account executives who made calls on ten potential new clients in two weeks and completed at least one sale. All met the challenge and won a trip, and the station wrote $10,000 in brand new business. Of course, if these and other actions fail to produce the projected revenues, the only alternative will be a reduction in expenditures.

Qualities

To be effective, a GSM must possess many attributes. Chief among them are knowledge, administrative and professional skills, and certain personal qualities.

Knowledge

The general sales manager should have knowledge of

Skills

Knowledge will be translated into success only if the general sales manager is able to combine it with both managerial and professional competence in

Personal Qualities

Selling often is referred to as a “people” business. For that reason, the GSM must be able to get along with people, both inside and outside the station. An outgoing personality, combined with a cooperative attitude and high ethical standards, are absolute necessities. But a friendly exterior will not spell success in the absence of other qualities.

General sales managers are charged with generating the bulk of the station’s revenues. Accordingly, they have to be

Finally, they must be adaptable to changing business conditions, and creative in developing sales techniques and promotions and in motivating their staff.

TIME SALES

Time is sold to advertisers by the second. The majority of sales in radio are 60-second spot announcements, called spots. In television, the 30-second spot is standard, and a limited number of 15- and 10-second spots are also available. Many broadcast stations also sell blocks of time for the airing of programs.

The Rate Card

Traditionally, radio stations listed the cost of time on a published rate card. The major factors in determining cost were the time of day at which the spots were to run and the number of spots purchased, hence the name frequency card.

In time, most stations moved to a grid card in which the principal determinants are the supply of, and demand for, time. Grid cards are still used by many radio stations. Increasingly, however, computerization has permitted stations to introduce an electronic rate card. Using revenue goals and a variety of other variables, such as supply and demand, daypart, traditional sellout periods, and the flow of demand during the week, the station may select from a number of software programs to develop its rate structure.

The electronic rate card in Figure 5.1 shows that the station sells time in four dayparts and that the cost of a 60-second spot varies by daypart and day of the week. Morning and afternoon drive times Monday through Friday are in greatest demand and command the highest prices. Costs increase as the week progresses. Although not included in the rate card, 30-second spots also may be purchased. In addition, the station offers a Total Audience Plan (TAP), whereby advertisers may obtain equal distribution of spots in the first three dayparts or in all four. The station also offers a discount when an advertiser buys an annual or long-term schedule. Stations are willing to give a price break in return for a guarantee of future revenue.

Figure 5.1 Radio station electronic rate card.

The electronic rate card offers several advantages. It compels the sales manager to pay continuing attention to inventory. As a result, inventory should be easier to manage and the station should be able to generate maximum revenues by pricing available time to reflect current supply and demand. At the same time, however, it reduces the account executive’s flexibility because special rates cannot be offered. Clients also may conclude that rates are negotiable because of their wide variation.

In addition to selling by daypart, most radio stations sell sponsorships in certain programs (e.g., news, sports) and in daily features (e.g., business report), with specific rates for each.

For the most part, television stations sell time in, and adjacent to, programs and not by daypart. They have used grid cards for many years to adjust rates in response to demand.

Figure 5.2 shows part of a grid rate card used by a television station that sells at five levels. As an example of how the selling level is determined, assume that demand for time in “Entertainment Tonight” is low. An advertiser may be able to buy 30-second spots at level 5, or $100 each. However, if demand is high, the advertiser may have to pay $450 at level 1.

Figure 5.2 Excerpt from television station grid rate card.

Note the following:

The station offers a discount to advertisers in its unsold inventory program. If time is not sold, the station is authorized to air participating advertisers’ spots up to a maximum monthly dollar amount.

The rate card in Figure 5.2 reflects costs in regularly scheduled, Monday through Friday programs on a network-affiliated station. Costs vary according to audience size for network prime-time programs. They vary, too, for weekend network sports programs, specials, and movies, and are influenced by the anticipated appeal of each to the station’s audience. Special rates are used for news updates, which usually include a 10-second spot and an open billboard announcing sponsorship.

Even though a rate card lists the costs of time, cash does not always change hands every time an advertiser obtains time on a broadcast station. Many stations exchange time for merchandise or services in a transaction known variously as a trade, tradeout, or barter. For example, advertisers may provide the station with travel, food, or furniture for its own use or as contest prizes, in return for advertising time with an equivalent cost. Some stations use trades to persuade hesitant businesses to advertise, and hope that they will be able to convert to a cash sale later. Merchandise or services instead of cash are accepted by many stations to settle delinquent accounts.

Barter programming also is used to acquire time. As noted in Chapter 4, “Broadcast Programming,” it permits a syndicator to obtain time, at no cost, for sale to national advertisers in return for supplying programs to the station without charge.

Cooperative, or co-op, advertising was mentioned earlier in this chapter. It allows a retailer to enjoy the benefits of advertising at less than rate card prices. In a co-op deal, the retailer receives from the manufacturer reimbursement for part or all of the cost of advertising that features the manufacturer’s product. The percentage of reimbursement usually is tied to the value of the retailer’s product purchase and carries a dollar limit. For instance, a hardware store may buy $20,000 worth of lawnmowers and qualify for 50 percent reimbursement to a maximum of $2,000.

Vendor support programs enable a retailer to obtain manufacturer (vendor) dollars to cover the advertising costs. In a direct vendor program, the retailer develops a proposal (often in cooperation with a station account executive) to promote the sale of a product, and presents it to the vendor or product distributor for financial support. For example, a grocery store may plan to highlight a product in an in-store promotion. It may propose a schedule of radio commercials that would advertise both the product and the store. In a reverse vendor program, the vendor approaches the retailer with funding to support a promotion. Monies provided under a vendor program are not subject to the kinds of product purchase requirements that apply to co-op, and represent another method whereby a retailer may acquire time without paying rate card prices.

Another method is through per-inquiry advertising, whereby an advertiser pays on the basis of the number of responses generated by the advertising. The practice is not widespread, but it is used by some stations, especially with mail-order companies that pay the station a percentage of money received on sales of the advertised product.

Per-inquiry advertising is frowned on by most stations. So, too, is rate cutting, often called “selling below the card” or “selling off the card.” Most stations express verbal opposition to cutting rates but many engage in it, especially when business is bad or when an advertiser threatens to make the buy on a competing station unless the rate is reduced.

Some stations disguise rate cutting by awarding advertisers bonus spots, also called spins. No charge is made for them since they are given as a consideration for buying other spots. The effect is that the advertiser receives time for less than the price quoted on the rate card.

Even though rate cutting may lead to a short-term spurt in sales for the station, it can result in a price war and create instability in the market. It conditions advertisers to believe that prices are negotiable and brings into question the value of commercial time on all stations. Ultimately, of course, it may be self-defeating, since stations have a limited amount of time to sell, and an increase in sales at less than the rate card price may not produce an increase in revenues.

Sales Policies

Time is a perishable commodity. Once it has passed, it cannot be sold to an advertiser. This fact imposes on the sales department an obligation to manage its commercial inventory in such a way that it produces the maximum possible financial return.

As a first step, the department must ensure that the rate card is realistic, based on considerations such as the size or characteristics of the audience, market size, and competitive conditions. But inventory management also requires the development of sales policies that will make time available and attractive to advertisers, and that will not result in audience tune-out.

Most stations have policies on the following:

With two exceptions, a station creates sales policies that are consistent with its revenue objectives and its perception of responsible operation. The first exception grows out of the Children’s Television Act of 1990, which directed the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to adopt rules limiting the amount of commercial matter that television stations may air during children’s programming. As a result, the commission approved a restriction on commercial time in programs directed toward viewers 12 and under to 10.5 minutes per hour on weekends and 12 minutes per hour on weekdays. At the same time, it reaffirmed its long-standing prohibition on “program-length commercials” (i.e., programs associated with a product and within which a commercial for the product is broadcast), and on “host selling,” or the use of program talent to advertise products.

The second exception applies to both radio and television stations and deals with the sale of time to candidates for public office. The following policies apply.

Access Section 312 of the Communications Act of 1934

As amended, Section 312 gives the FCC the right to revoke a broadcast station’s license “for willful or repeated failure to allow reasonable access to or to permit purchase of reasonable amounts of time for the use of a broadcasting station by a legally qualified candidate for Federal elective office on behalf of his candidacy.”

Federal candidates are the only ones to whom a station must grant access or sell time. However, if time is sold to a candidate for any elective office, Section 315(a) of the Communications Act applies:

Charges Section 73.1942(a) of the FCC’s Rules and Regulations

This section stipulates the prices that the station may charge political candidates:

Discrimination Section 73.1941(e)

This section provides that

Records Section 73.1943

This section requires stations to maintain and make available for public inspection certain political records:

Time Requests

The candidate is responsible for requesting equal opportunities:

Proof

Additionally, proving that the equal opportunities provision applies rests with the candidate:

Local And Regional Sales: the Account Executive

As indicated earlier, local and regional sales are the responsibility of staff members known as account executives.

Hiring

Success in attaining sales objectives is tied closely to the station’s ability to attract and select persons with the appropriate background and personal attributes. If they are selected wisely, the station will reap significant financial returns; if not, the station will face constant turnover, resulting in lost sales, disruptions in relationships with clients, and the time, effort, and expense of finding and training replacements.

Sources

Many people are attracted to careers in broadcasting because of the glamour that accompanies work as a disc jockey or television news anchor, or the opportunity for creative expression through writing or production. Relatively few show an initial interest in sales, despite the fact that it offers better financial prospects and an avenue for advancement to top management.

In their search for account executives, stations turn to various sources:

Qualifications

Probably the best predictor of success as an account executive is a record of accomplishment in broadcast sales. However, in selecting among all candidates, the station should consider knowledge, skills, and personal qualities.

Knowledge

Applicants for account executive positions should have, or show the ability to develop, knowledge of

Skills

The account executive should have the ability or potential to set and attain objectives, plan and manage time, communicate effectively, keep accurate records, and relate to people and their problems. On a daily basis, skills in preparing and delivering sales presentations, selling and servicing accounts, and interpreting and using research are required.

Personal Qualities

Ambition, initiative, and energy are prerequisites for anyone seeking success in sales. Persistence, persuasiveness, imagination, integrity, and professionalism in behavior and dress are equally necessary for the broadcast account executive.

Training

Stations recognize that new employees with little or no experience will be productive only if they understand what is expected of them and are equipped with the knowledge and skills to function effectively. To accomplish those goals, the Television Bureau of Advertising (TVB) partners with The Center for Online Learning in a self-administered and self-paced sales training course over the Internet. The Radio Advertising Bureau (RAB) provides a variety of training opportunities for radio sales personnel. Many stations prefer to organize customized training programs to introduce new account executives to their responsibilities and to the information and techniques they will be required to master to achieve success in the market.

Typically, a program includes details of the station’s expectations on the number of contacts and sales presentations, and the amount of business that should be accomplished within a certain period of time. It introduces the employee to the medium, and to the station and its personnel, particularly those departments and people whose work affects, or is affected by, the sales department.

For example, the new account executive should become familiar as soon as possible with the station’s format or programming, and with traffic, continuity or creative services, and production personnel and practices. Methods of prospecting or finding new business, preparing and presenting sales proposals, processing orders, maintaining records, and compiling activity reports should also be covered.

Figure 5.3 contains an example of a two-week training program for radio station account executives. In addition to the activities listed, trainees are required to complete daily readings, listen to audio tapes, view videotapes and slide-tape presentations, and spend part of each day observing the work of the sales department.

Figure 5.3 Training program for radio station account executives.

New employees with previous broadcast sales experience may not be required to participate in all training activities. However, they should attend those that permit them to become familiar with the station and its personnel and with the department’s sales policies and practices.

Training does not end with an initial program of the kind outlined in Figure 5.3. It should be a continuing requirement for new and existing account executives so that they may enhance their knowledge, stay abreast of new sales techniques and strategies, and seek additional means of revenue enhancement.

One method employed by many stations is the generation of revenue beyond the sale of airtime. It is termed non-traditional revenue (NTR). RAB reported in 2004 that more than 60 percent of station survey respondents said they include the topic in their training. Topping the list of NTR activities in which stations engaged were event marketing, cause-related marketing, and the Internet.³ One station organizes a sports and leisure show in a mall and derives revenue from the sale of booth space to event exhibitors. A station might identify financial support of the public schools as its cause and promote the sale of books containing discount coupons for use at restaurants, stores, and entertainment and cultural venues. To generate revenue, the station might sell mentions of participating companies in its on-air promotions. The sale of classified advertising on the station’s Web site is an example of a way in which an increasing number of stations are using the Internet as a source of non-traditional revenue.

Sales Tools

The most important tool of the account executive is knowledge that will permit the creation of a sales proposal geared to the interests and needs of each client or prospect. Knowledge of the market, the station, and the client are of particular importance.

Market Data

The account executive should be familiar with the people and business activity of the market, including the size and composition of the population, median income and purchasing power, and retail sales and buying patterns. Knowledge of the workforce and working hours, and of cultural and recreational pursuits, also should be part of the account executive’s database.

Station Data

To show how the station can assist the client or prospect in attaining objectives, the account executive should have knowledge of the station’s

Other data that may be helpful in making a sale include the success achieved by advertisers currently using the station, awards won by the station and its employees, and the quality of staff and the facilities available to produce commercial messages.

Client Data

One of the most frequent objections by advertisers is that account executives do not know the advertiser’s business. Some stations try to alleviate that problem by inviting current advertisers to station sales meetings to educate the sales staff. However, in compiling a tailor-made proposal, the account executive must understand the particular needs of each client or prospect.

To do that effectively calls for detailed knowledge of the company, its products or services, its customers, and its competitors. Familiarity with the company’s objectives, current advertising practices, and advertising budget also is required.

The process whereby an account executive obtains such information is known as a client needs analysis. RAB has developed a series of questions to complete the analysis and they are reproduced in Figure 5.4. Answers to the questions should permit the account executive to develop a profile of the business and to prepare a sales proposal that will be responsive to the prospect’s needs.

Figure 5.4 RAB sample client needs analysis questions. (© Radio Advertising Bureau. Used with permission.)

Knowledge of the market, station, and prospective client may not be sufficient for prospects who have not engaged in paid advertising in the past. They may have to be convinced of the value of advertising and, for that reason, the account executive should be familiar with the benefits that advertising brings. RAB’s list of ten reasons to advertise (Figure 5.5) provides useful information to meet such a challenge.

Figure 5.5 RAB’s ten reasons to advertise. (© Radio Advertising Bureau. Used with permission.)

Prospects who have not used radio or television previously may have to be persuaded of the medium’s advantages as an advertising vehicle. The radio account executive may cite some of that medium’s strengths:

The television account executive may point to that medium’s

Many stations include relevant market and station data in a sales kit, a variety of materials usually contained in an attractive folder and designed to demonstrate the station’s ability to generate traffic for the prospect. The kit might consist of details of the market’s population, the size and characteristics of the audience, personality profiles, a coverage map, cost and effectiveness comparisons with other media, and reprints of newspaper or magazine articles about the station and of the station’s trade and consumer advertising.

The Sales Proposal

In the past, account executives relied heavily on the sales kit to obtain an order. They expected that an impressive array of information about the station would be sufficiently persuasive. What they failed to realize is that advertisers are interested in the station only when they understand how it can help further their business.

Today, sales managers demand written, custom sales proposals. Instead of an all-purpose collection of materials, account executives are required to develop a personalized proposal that addresses the special needs of each potential client. The proposal includes frequent references to the prospect, and the material is organized for easy understanding. It is brief and to the point.

For example, a radio station’s proposal to an above-ground pool retailer that does not advertise on radio might begin with a list of campaign objectives: for example, position the store as the best in the market and pool ownership as simple, economical, and fun; and identify the targets as families with children, living in outlying areas. That might be followed by a description of campaign strategy: a heavy schedule of commercials to make the message inescapable; a repetition of the themes of speed and ease of installation, simplicity of maintenance, and low monthly payments. A statement about radio’s ability to reach families throughout the day and to do so at a lower cost than competing media might be followed by details of the target audience (adults aged 25 to 54) that listen to the station in outlying and rural areas where above-ground pools are very popular. Finally, the campaign objectives are repeated and a specific advertising schedule is presented, showing the number of spots proposed, when they would air, and the weekly cost.

Note that the proposal includes a recommended advertising schedule. Merely to sell time would bring the account executive a commission, but might not produce increased business for the advertiser and could make it difficult or impossible to obtain a subsequent order.

The most widely accepted measures of a schedule’s effectiveness are reach and frequency. Reach refers to the number of different homes or persons targeted by the advertiser who see or hear the commercial. Frequency is the number of times the targeted homes or persons are exposed to it.

Both goals may be accomplished through a saturation schedule, a heavy load of commercials aired in time periods when the targeted homes or persons are tuned in. In contrast, a spectrum plan exposes different people to the commercial, but only occasionally. It involves the purchase of a moderate number of spots distributed throughout the day.

A spot schedule is a series of commercials aired in only one or two periods of the day, and is aimed at reaching the target audience that is most available during those periods. It is used to reach a large number of people in a particular demographic category.

A rotation plan gives an advertiser exposure to a similar or different audience over a period of time. With horizontal rotation, the commercials are broadcast at or about the same time daily. Vertical rotation places the commercials throughout the day.

Advertisers who want to stretch their campaign may buy time on an “onand-off” basis. In other words, they may run a succession of two-week schedules with a one-week interruption between them. Some account executives refer to this practice as a blinking schedule.

The Sales Call

Account executives handle two kinds of accounts:

Many new account executives have to prove they can develop new business and have a clear understanding of the sales process and client service before they are assigned to an active account. Once they have provided proof, they join other account executives in working on an exclusive list of accounts.

The most equitable method of compiling the list is to assign a variety of product or service categories to each salesperson. Assigning on a geographical basis so that all areas of the market are covered can lead to imbalances in sales opportunities and create morale problems. Assigning by category (e.g., furniture stores, automobile dealerships) enables the account executive to develop a good knowledge of the product and of category sales and marketing practices, but many advertisers object to dealing with someone who does business with competing companies.

In addition to equity, a major consideration in assigning accounts is compatibility. Usually, attempts are made to match an account executive with a prospect or client on the basis of their respective personalities and temperaments.

The purpose of sales calls is to obtain an order. However, few sales are made the first time an account executive calls on a prospect. Often, the first meeting is used to learn as much as possible about the prospect’s business and needs so that a proposal may be prepared for presentation during a second visit.

To successfully generate initial and repeat sales to a direct account, the account executive should take certain actions before, during, and after the call:

Before

Identify the person who handles the prospect’s advertising and is authorized to buy time and sign a sales contract.

Make an appointment to meet with individuals at their convenience. Develop knowledge of the prospect’s

Be aware of the interests and personalities of the persons to whom the proposal will be presented, and of their buying habits (e.g., whether they buy in small or large quantities).

Prepare a proposal that addresses the prospect’s needs and includes an advertising schedule and its costs.

Ensure that printed or other materials for the presentation are ready and taken on the call. Increasingly, account executives are turning to PowerPoint to present the proposal. It offers the opportunity for greater effect than the printed page through the inclusion of colorful graphics, audio, and still and moving pictures. If it is to be used, make sure that it is complete and free of errors.

During

Describe and explain the proposal, with frequent reference to the prospect’s needs and the ways in which the proposal will help meet them. Remember to

After

Process the order. The routing of the order varies, but generally it is checked by the local sales manager and then cleared against availabilities. If requested times are available, details are sent to traffic for entry on the program log. If copy and/or production are required, relevant information is provided to the persons responsible. In some stations, bookkeeping receives a copy of the order for billing purposes; in others, clients are billed from the log.

Prepare a report on the call, noting the name of the client and the person seen, the date, the content of the presentation, its results, and comments.

Service the account. Diligent servicing paves the way for subsequent sales. It begins with monitoring the progress of the order from its delivery at the station to the time the commercial begins to air.

Problems can occur, and it is the responsibility of the account executive to ensure that they are resolved. Additionally, the account executive should check with the client regularly during the advertising’s schedule to assess its results. Adjustments may be necessary if the commercial appears to be having limited or no effect. Maintaining contact with the client is a continuing responsibility, and should be accompanied by acts of appreciation, such as invitations to lunch or dinner, offers of tickets to cultural, sports, and other events, or similar gestures.

If a sale did not result from the call, the account executive should analyze the reasons why and develop another proposal that addresses the prospect’s reservations or concerns. Sometimes, the failure may be explained by the account executive’s inability to position the station in such a way that a buy makes sense. Often, it may result from the way in which objections raised by the prospect are handled. Most are predictable, and the account executive should anticipate them and be ready to respond.

The following are among the objections mentioned most frequently, and the actions that may be taken to counter them:

The account executive should listen closely to every objection and seek clarification or additional details. For example, a blanket statement like, “I tried radio and it doesn’t work” is not specific enough to understand what gave rise to it or to frame a satisfactory response. Further questioning may reveal that the prospect spent $250 on a schedule with a station whose listeners were not potential customers. Now, the objection has moved from radio in general to a specific radio station, and that is easier to handle. The account executive can use the new information to speak about radio’s ability to target particular demographics and to describe the represented station’s proven record of attracting listeners in the demographic group that buys the prospect’s products.

The account executive’s principal contact in agency accounts is with media buyers. Generally, they are much more knowledgeable than retailers about broadcast advertising, and their concerns are different. While a retailer is interested in results (i.e., generating more customers), a media buyer focuses on rating points and costs.

Assume that a decision has been made to buy a schedule on a television station. A request is made for a list of avails for the quarter. The buyer will identify the required demographic (e.g., men and women aged 25 to 54), restrictions (e.g., no time before 4:00 P.M. or after midnight), the amount budgeted (e.g., $25,000), and the cost-per-point sought (e.g., $20). The account executive uses an appropriate computer program to arrive at the most efficient schedule based on the buyer’s stipulations. Negotiations continue until agreement is reached on schedule and cost. If the schedule fails to deliver the promised ratings, the media buyer usually requests additional spots at no cost to make up for the difference.

Sales presentations to agencies are prepared in much the same way as those for retailers and must be scheduled to meet the buyer’s quarterly purchasing cycles. They pay special attention to client needs, but they also recognize the buyer’s interest in rating points and costs, and are designed to address it.

Compensation

As noted in Chapter 3, “Human Resource Management,” financial compensation for sales personnel differs from that of other staff. The seven principal methods are

The account executive must receive enough money to enjoy a reasonable standard of living and a sense of security during the initial period of employment. Some stations attempt to provide both by using straight salary for several months, moving to commission and a smaller salary, and, ultimately, to straight commission.

Commissions may be paid on billings or on billings collected. If billings are used, commissions are adjusted later if payment is not received from the advertiser. The billings collected method usually leads the account executive to check the credit rating of prospective clients before attempting a sale, and to take extra effort to ensure that bills are paid and delinquent accounts settled.

With the exception of salary only, all compensation methods use commissions and quotas to stimulate effort and productivity. Most stations employ additional incentives, with monetary or other prizes as inducements.

Individual or team sales contests are common in many stations, with points determined on the level of accomplishment. For example, new accounts may be worth 25 points, new business from clients who have used competing stations, 20, and increasing sales to current accounts, 15. Other accomplishments meriting points might include generation of the greatest dollar amount of new business or the greatest percentage increase in business.

Other incentives include extra commissions, such as paying a higher percentage commission on new than on repeat business or on production beyond quota. One radio station rewards account executives who reach their established revenue goal with a four-day weekend by giving them a day off on the Friday preceding a Monday national holiday.

Prizes should take into account the motivations of employees. A small monetary reward may not be very appealing to an account executive earning more than $100,000 a year. Similarly, a trip to a nearby resort may not be viewed as valuable by someone who does a lot of traveling.

Contests that are won regularly by the same few people may injure rather than assist the sales effort. For that reason, many stations prefer group incentives. A television station awards a collective bonus when quarterly budgeted sales revenues are exceeded. Everybody has a reason to lend their best efforts to the endeavor since all benefit if the goal is achieved.

One way of reaching for any sales goal is through additional sales to existing clients. Another is through the attraction of new clients, a responsibility of all account executives. It is particularly important for the new employee, who may have only a short client list, or no list at all.

Monitoring other media can provide useful leads in identifying new accounts. Thumbing through the local newspaper and tuning to other stations will reveal who is advertising, what they are advertising, and the targets and appeals being used. Analyzing the ads permits the account executive to develop a sales proposal for the advertiser, using the products, audiences, and appeals of the current campaign.

Many newspapers carry stories announcing the opening of new businesses. Government offices maintain records of business licenses granted and building permits issued. These and other sources provide valuable clues for the account executive in search of clients.

National Sales: The Station Rep

Most national advertising is bought by advertising agencies with offices in large cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Dallas. Since it would be impossible for the majority of broadcast stations to maintain a sales staff in those cities where major agencies buy time, they engage a station representative company, or rep, to sell time on their behalf.

The rep is, in effect, an extension of the local sales force. Rep sales are billed by the station to the agency, which deducts its 15 percent commission. From the balance, the station pays the rep a commission, as set forth in the contract between the two. It may run from about 5 to 15 percent of the gross business ordered (i.e., the amount billed to the agency). One reason for the range in rates is the ability of multiple-station owners to negotiate a reduction based on the number of stations to be represented.

Selecting the Rep

National sales may account for as much as 50 percent of a station’s sales revenues. Selection of a rep, therefore, is an important decision. Among the considerations to be weighed before contracting for the services of a rep firm are these:

Rep Services

The basic service offered by a rep company is the sale of national spot advertising on stations it represents. Sales are accomplished through rep account executives, who make regular calls on media buyers in advertising agencies.

Much of the information used by the account executives is developed by rep employees engaged in research on, among other items, programming, products, advertisers, and broadcast markets and audiences. Their work enables the rep company to offer a second service: consulting on a range of station activities, all of which have an impact on the sales effort.

Most rep firms offer advice to stations on the following:

To represent the station effectively and to maximize the advertising dollars flowing to the station, the rep must be supplied with data on the station, competition, and market. Information on the station would include

The rep also would find it helpful to receive details of station facilities, especially those that distinguish it from the competition, the station’s role and image in the community, and, for radio, an air check and personality profiles.

To the degree possible, the station should provide the rep with similar information on competing stations in the market, drawing particular attention to those characteristics that suggest, or demonstrate, the represented station’s superiority.

The rep may have to sell agencies on the worth of the market as well as the station. Accordingly, the station should supply details of the community’s media and their circulation, population makeup and trends, employment categories, major employers, and pay days. Details of the market’s educational institutions and cultural and recreational activities also would give the rep a profile of the market.

Station-Rep Relations

The principal contact between the station and the rep company is the person responsible for national sales, usually the general sales manager or the national sales manager. If the relationship is to be productive, it must be characterized by trust and confidence.

To establish and maintain such an atmosphere requires open and constant communication. The station must satisfy the rep’s information needs promptly and accurately. In particular, the rep must be aware of all availabilities and of modifications in the rate card, and must be provided with details and explanations if spots are not aired as ordered. The rep must also be advised of changes in the programming of the station and of competing stations. The station should be informed of the status of ongoing negotiations with agency buyers, and has a right to an explanation if potential sales are not closed by the rep.

Communication can be enhanced through regular visits to the rep’s offices by the station’s general manager as well as the general and national sales managers. Such visits provide opportunities to sell the market and the station and to exchange ideas and information. Similarly, appropriate members of the rep’s management team should visit the station periodically.

The station should reply promptly to rep requests for availabilities, and clear and confirm sales orders as quickly as possible. Timely payment of commissions also contributes to good relations.

Since the rep company is a partner in the sales effort, it should be involved in the development of sales objectives and plans, and in the review of their progress. And the rep should be recognized for significant accomplishments through congratulatory letters and awards.

RESEARCH AND SALES

The sales department relies heavily on market and audience measurement research. For the most part, market research is qualitative. It includes, for example, information on new businesses and on demographic and employment changes, much of which the department may obtain from the chamber of commerce, business news announcements and stories in local newspapers, and census reports. More comprehensive data on factors such as the occupation, education, income, and buying habits of station audiences and the population in general may be purchased from market research companies.

Typically, audience research is quantitative and consists of a count of listeners or viewers categorized by age and gender. It is usually bought from independent companies. Account executives use it to provide clients with details of audiences that will be reached through a commercial schedule and to demonstrate the schedule’s efficiency. It is also a useful tool for reviewing the rate card.

Three principal methods are used to estimate audiences for radio and television stations. A fourth is used only for television. Each employs a process known as random sampling, which means that each household or person in the population being surveyed has an equal chance of being selected. Accordingly, the viewing or listening behavior of persons or households in the sample group can be projected to that population. The measurements are estimates, and are subject to a sampling error. In other words, the actual audience may be a little larger or smaller than reported. The survey methods are as follows:

Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and some of them are listed in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of broadcast audience measurement methods.

The sales department, station rep, and advertising agencies use audience estimates compiled chiefly by Nielsen Media Research (television) and The Arbitron Company (radio).

Nielsen surveys all 210 television markets for four-week periods in November, February, May, and July. Some of the larger markets are surveyed seven times a year, through the addition of October, January, and March. These simultaneous surveys are known as “sweeps.”

Arbitron conducts continuous measurements in most of the top-100 radio markets and a handful of lower-ranked markets for 48 weeks a year, in four, 12-week cycles. Other markets are measured for 12 weeks twice a year (spring and fall).

In more than 50 large markets, Nielsen uses a household meter to collect TV set usage data (i.e., set on/off, channel tuned) in the preparation of overnight reports. In the top ten markets, it is introducing a different kind of meter, the local people meter (LPM). However, the basic measurement method for television stations in all markets is a diary, which sample households complete for each television set for one week. Each day is broken down into 15-minute periods. Respondents are asked to note the station or channel name, the channel number, and the name of the program or movie to which the set was tuned in each period, together with the age and gender of all family members and visitors viewing and the number of hours each person works per week. VCR recording activity also must be included.

For radio, Arbitron supplies a one-week diary to each member of selected households 12 years of age and older. Respondents enter in the diary (1) the start and stop times of each listening period; (2) station identifiers (e.g., call letters, dial setting, station name, or program name); (3) whether the station was AM or FM; and (4) whether they heard it at home, in a car, at work, or in some other place.

At the end of the week, the completed television or radio diaries are mailed to the respective companies. The information they contain is processed and some of the results published in a local market report, more commonly called a ratings book or, simply, the book. In metered television markets, the set tuning information is augmented at least four months a year with demographic viewing data from a separate sample of diary households.

The television report estimates, by age and gender and for different time periods and programs, the audience for stations in the market. The radio report lists audience trends and current estimates by age and gender for different time periods. It also contains details of listening locations, time spent listening, and the ethnic composition of station audiences.

Market report information prepared by Nielsen and Arbitron is organized according to the geographic area in which viewing or listening took place. The following areas are used in the Nielsen Station Index (NSI) report:

Audience Measurement Terminology

To use the market report effectively, the account executive and other members of the sales department staff must understand the information it contains. Understanding begins with knowledge of basic audience measurement terminology. The following are among the terms used most frequently:

Rating

In television, the percentage of all TV households or persons tuned to a specific station:

Or

To say that a television program has a household rating of 10 means, therefore, that 10 percent of all TV households in the survey area were watching it.

In radio, rating denotes the percentage of all people in the survey area listening to a specific station:

Households Using Television (HUT)

The percentage of all television households with TV sets in operation at a particular time:

Share

The percentage of HUT or persons using television (PUT) tuned to a specific station:

Or

In radio, share represents the percentage of listeners to a station:

Rating, share, and households using television are interrelated, as indicated by the formula used to calculate each:

Assume that a TV market report gave the following information for the period 6:00 P.M. to 6:30 P.M.:

If you wanted to calculate the share for WCCC, you would merely divide 10 (rating) by 60 (HUT) to give a share of 17 percent. Note that the HUT level is greater than the sum of ratings for stations in the market. That is explained by the fact that some households (22 percent) were viewing cable or satellite services or stations from outside the market.

Similarly, if you knew that 60 percent of households were watching television, and that WCCC had a 17 share, you could figure the station’s rating. Simply multiply 17 (share) by .60 (HUT). To determine HUT, divide 10 (rating) by 17 (share).

Other commonly used audience measurement terms include these:

Advertisers want to broadcast their messages to people who use, or might use, their products or services, and at a reasonable cost. With an understanding of the terminology in the market report, the account executive can interpret the information it contains and incorporate relevant parts of it in a sales presentation.

The advertiser who is interested only in total numbers of people, or people with certain age or gender characteristics, may be impressed by ratings converted to numbers of households or persons. The account executive can go further and use share information to show that the station reaches more of the advertiser’s clientele than the competition, or cumes to indicate how many different people would be exposed to the commercial.

Advertisers also are concerned with the efficiency of their advertising buys, or what it costs them to reach target audiences. Often, this is calculated on the basis of cost-per-thousand (CPM) households or persons:

For example, if a spot costs $300 and is aired in a program seen in 20,000 households, the household CPM is $15 (300 divided by 20,000 and multiplied by 1000).

Another measure of efficiency is cost-per-rating point (CPP), which is calculated by dividing the cost of a spot by the rating for the period or program in which it was broadcast. If a spot costs $300 and the rating is 5, the CPP is $60. For an advertising schedule, the cost is determined by dividing the cost of the schedule by the GRPs, or the sum of ratings, obtained.

Audience measurement estimates are important tools for advertising agencies and station rep companies as well. Agency time buyers use them to select markets and stations on which to place their clients’ advertising.

The station rep uses the market report in much the same way as the station’s account executives: to persuade advertisers and agencies that they can achieve their objectives effectively and efficiently by purchasing schedules on the represented station. Acting in an advisory capacity, the rep can use the report to support recommendations for changes in the station’s price structure.

The market report provides essential information for station and rep account executives and advertising agencies. However, much of the data collected is not contained in it, including such key details as reach and frequency. To obtain that and other information, stations often purchase additional services from the audience measurement companies.

Traditionally, audience research has focused on quantitative data of the kinds described. As competition for advertising dollars has intensified, many stations have sought information that goes beyond the age and gender of audience members. Income, home ownership, occupation, educational level, and other characteristics provide important pointers to consumer motivations. They help the station to develop a more complete profile of listeners or viewers. They also permit the sales department to incorporate qualitative data in presentations and to give the client or advertising agency more precise details on which to base media buying decisions.

Such information is available from many sources, including Arbitron and Nielsen. Arbitron offers three different qualitative data services to reflect the demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, and purchasing characteristics of consumers in more than 260 large, medium, and smaller (100+) markets. Nielsen has teamed with Scarborough Research to produce the NSI Profiler, which describes shopping patterns, demographics, media usage, and lifestyle activities in 75 leading markets. Griffin Media Research provides similar local market information in its radio and television reports. In several dozen markets, Leigh Stowell & Company and Marshall Marketing and Communications research purchasing habits, demographics, psychographics, and media behavior. Mediamark Research Inc. (MRI) surveys the demographics, product usage, and media exposure of the adult population in the 48 contiguous states. Claritas Corporation breaks down the country into zip codes to develop profiles of the people who live there.

WHAT’S AHEAD?

If financial forecasters are correct, station sales departments can contemplate a future that is rosier than the past few years.

Total spending on broadcast television advertising is projected to increase at a compound annual rate of 5.6 percent through 2008.⁴

For radio, the predicted growth is 7.9 percent annually.⁵ However, that includes both advertiser and consumer spending on satellite radio, a source of increasing competition for radio stations. By mid-2005, the number of sub-scribers to the two national satellite services was fewer than six million, but both were registering impressive percentage gains.⁶

Television stations will continue to face competition from wired cable and direct broadcast satellite, which are likely to contribute to further audience fragmentation.

The Internet will make additional inroads into the audiences of both radio and television stations. Between 2000 and 2004, the monthly Internet audio and video audience doubled to reach 51 million consumers.⁷ The radio audience was about 38 million a month and the average consumer spent about five hours a week with the medium.⁸ Nearly one in four Americans have viewed video over the Internet.⁹ The percentage that told researchers they had viewed in the past month grew from 7 to 12 percent in the four-year period.¹⁰

Of course, the Internet also offers significant economic potential for broadcasters. Annual revenues earned by radio and television stations account for merely 3 percent of the $1.65 billion local online advertising market.¹¹ Many stations have recognized the opportunity and have responded with aggressive campaigns to win dollars from competing media.

A favorite target has been the local newspaper and, especially, its classified advertising revenues. Stations in markets of all sizes have redirected some of those dollars to their balance sheet. Some have achieved that goal by employing classified sales reps.

However, in an era of intensive investor pressure for profits and, for many television network affiliates, decreasing amounts of station compensation, all stations will have to take a serious look at this and other sources of nontraditional revenue.

The sale of classified advertising space on a station Web site is one method of generating additional and, in most cases, new dollars. Examples of classified advertisers that have invested their money with newspapers include companies with employment listings, automobile dealers, and real estate agents. Broadcasters can offer them and other advertisers more attractive options, including combined online and on-air packages and on-air promotions to help drive traffic to their Web sites.

Successful pursuit of classified advertising dollars would be enhanced if broadcasters were to identify additional benefits. For example, they could point to reduced advertiser dependence on the newspaper and increased ability to negotiate better rates.

More stations are entering the online advertising arena, either on their own or as part of a network of Web sites. But many have not yet been persuaded of the economic advantages that it affords.

That is evidenced by the results of the RAB’s survey cited earlier in the chapter.¹² It found that fewer than one-half of stations were employing the Internet as a revenue source. Even among users, the monies generated were modest. About 70 percent of stations said they derived 10 percent or less of their total revenues from it.

The apparent lukewarm reception to this potential goldmine may be attributable to some sales managers who do not consider it part of their core business. Others may feel uncomfortable venturing into relatively new and uncharted waters. Whatever the reason, it is clear that many do not place a high priority on it. Only about one-third of respondents to the RAB survey said they include the Internet in training programs for new account executives.

In times of intense competition for advertising dollars, broadcasters will have to ensure that their account executives are knowledgeable and skilled in identifying and capitalizing on all sources of revenue enhancement. That challenge demands adequate and appropriate training. However, in their eagerness to respond to bottom-line pressure from investors, some stations have hired inexperienced personnel and put them to work without any kind of preparation. Failure and dismissal have been the inevitable consequences. Additional turnover has been created by resignations resulting from the absence of station attention to training. One study determined that, among those planning to leave radio, only 36 percent thought that their company was committed to training. In contrast, 61 percent of those intending to stay believed their company supported training for sales personnel.¹³

One factor that may influence sales training activities in television stations is the decision on use of their digital channels. If they opt for multiple program services, each devoted to discrete content, existing account executives will face the challenge of selling in a new and different environment. Adapting to it will require relevant instruction.

Television sales departments also will have to confront adjustments resulting from changes in audience measurement methods. Already, those in the largest markets are experiencing the transition from four-times-a-year sweeps data to daily household and demographic data, courtesy of Nielsen’s local people meter. In LPM markets, sales staff will be required to digest and act on information that is more voluminous and current than heretofore.

Another Nielsen innovation will require further adjustments: the measurement of viewing in households with digital video recorders. Timeliness will give way to comprehensiveness, since the information will be provided in three phases. The initial information will record viewing at the time of the program’s airing. That will be followed by time-shifted viewing data. Finally, ratings reflecting all viewing will be distributed.

In the more distant future, both radio and television sales departments may confront additional audience measurement challenges. Much depends on the results of tests on Arbitron’s portable people meter (PPM). The meter is about the size of a pager and can be carried or worn. It is designed to track listening and viewing wherever they occur by automatically picking up inaudible codes embedded in radio and television programming.

SUMMARY

Broadcast stations generate the majority of their revenue through the sale of time to local, regional, and national advertisers.

Obtaining advertisers is the responsibility of the sales department. It is headed by a general sales manager and includes a national sales manager, local sales manager, and account executives.

The general sales manager develops sales objectives and strategies, prepares and controls the department’s budget, and directs and supervises the work of the departmental staff. Knowledge of the financial objectives of the station’s owners, broadcast sales and advertising, and the sales activities of competing stations are among the qualities the general sales manager should possess. They should be combined with administrative and sales skills, and with an energetic and competitive personality.

The national sales manager coordinates the sale of time to national advertisers, and the local sales manager supervises the account executives.

Most of the time sold is for 30- or 60-second commercials, or spots. Many stations also sell longer periods of time for the broadcast of complete programs.

The cost of time in different dayparts on a radio station is listed on a rate card. It is influenced by several factors, including supply and demand, the time of day, and the length of the spot. Television stations sell time in, and adjacent to, programs. Rates are determined by supply and demand and spot length.

Instead of accepting money, stations may exchange some of their time for advertiser-provided merchandise or services in a transaction known as a trade or tradeout. Barter programming, co-op, vendor support, and per-inquiry advertising permit advertisers to obtain time at less than rate card prices. Some stations cut their rates or provide bonus spots to attract clients.

Sales and advertising practices are governed by policies the station implements according to its revenue objectives and its notion of responsible operation. However, the government dictates policies on the amount of time that may be sold in children’s TV programs and on the use of radio and television stations by candidates for public office.

The effectiveness of the local sales effort is determined largely by the abilities of the account executives. Knowledge of the market, the station, and prospective clients are among the tools necessary for success.

To obtain orders, account executives present custom sales proposals to prospective advertisers and to advertising agencies, emphasizing ways in which the station can assist in attaining client objectives. They are compensated in various ways, and commissions and other incentives usually are employed to encourage effort and productivity.

Sales to national advertisers are accomplished by station representative companies, or station reps, which obtain orders from advertising agencies located in major cities. In addition to selling, most reps offer advice to the station on sales and sales strategy, budget development, programming, research, and promotion.

Market and audience measurement research are important tools of the sales department. Radio and television audiences are measured mostly by diary. Television audiences are measured by meter as well. The research results in estimates of the size and composition of the audience, and enables the station to advise advertisers of the number and kinds of people who hear or see its programs, and the costs of reaching particular demographic categories.

Even though advertising revenues are expected to grow over the next few years, investor pressure and a reduction in TV network compensation will compel many broadcast stations to pursue sources of nontraditional revenue. If they are to reap its benefits, they will have to invest in additional account executive training. Changes in audience measurement methods also will impose training demands on television sales departments.

CASE STUDY: RADIO

You are the local sales manager of an all-news station in a large market in the South.

Account executive Cliff Harwell stops by your office. He has just met with Thelma Steel, owner of a local health foods store called Nutrition Works. He has managed her account for five years. Her monthly advertising budget is $3,600 and your station receives all of it. However, Cliff tells you this may be about to end.

Thelma has concluded that she has reached all your listeners and is about to move her entire budget to cable.

During the drive back to the station, Cliff has come up with an idea to retain the account. He calls it “reality radio,” and hopes to capitalize on the reality television craze. Here is what he has in mind.

Nutrition Works will hold a contest on the station to pick three people who want to improve their body image. Those selected will be put on a 90-day weight loss and conditioning program using products available at the store. Their photographs will be displayed on the station’s Web site at the outset and at 14-day intervals until the program ends. Each will give periodic progress reports in the store’s spots. At the end of 90 days, they will record testimonials extolling the ability of Nutrition Works to ensure weight loss and better health.

EXERCISES

CASE STUDY: TELEVISION

You are an account executive with an NBC affiliate in a medium market in the Southeast.

Dorothy Naylor has been one of your clients for nine years. She owns Antiques World, a local antiques store, and spends about $2,000 each month with you. Most of her spots appear in the early-morning local news program.

A month before she is due to renew her contract, she calls to tell you that she plans to move her broadcast advertising to a news/talk radio station. When you ask her the reason, she says that she wants to try something “new and different.” The station has offered her sole sponsorship of a 30-minute syndicated antiques program that airs Saturdays at noon. It will also cross-promote the program. She adds that the deal will be less costly than her current television schedule.

Before ending the call, you ask if you may stop by her store and chat with her before she signs with the radio station. She says that won’t be a problem.

EXERCISES

NOTES

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Brady, Frank R., and J. Angel Vasquez. Direct Response Television: The Authoritative Guide. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group, 1995.

Eicoff, Alvin, and Anne Knudsen. Direct Marketing Through Broadcast Media: TV, Radio, Cable, Infomercials, Home Shopping and More. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group, 1995.

Greenwood, Ken. High Performance Selling. West Palm Beach, FL: Streamline Press, 1995.

Herweg, Ashley, and Godfrey Herweg. Recruiting, Interviewing, Hiring and Developing Superior Salespeople, 4th ed. Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters, 1993.

Herweg, Godfrey, and Ashley Herweg. Making More Money: Selling Radio Advertising Without Numbers, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters, 1995.

Plum, Shyrl L. Underwriting 101: Selling College Radio. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000.

Schulberg, Pete. Radio Advertising: The Authoritative Handbook, 2nd ed. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group, 1996.

Shane, Ed. Selling Electronic Media. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1999.

Warner, Charles, and Joseph Buchman. Media Selling: Broadcast, Cable, Print and Interactive, 3rd ed. Ames: Blackwell, 2003.

Webster, James G., Patricia F. Phalen, and Lawrence W. Lichty. Ratings Analysis: The Theory and Practice of Audience Research, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000.