INTRODUCTION

“Like all art, photography creates its own reality. And the best photos are not those which succinctly record what has been seen, but those which understand how to structure this according to rules and laws specific to the genre.”   —From Icons of Photography

There is just “something about” certain photographs, isn’t there? If you’re like me, you pause at the sight of a small percentage of photographs you see in magazines and journals, on gallery and museum walls, in family archives and in antique stores, and marvel at that something. That “something” is hard to describe linguistically; it exists strictly as a visual construct. Perhaps the English language lacks a specific term to describe it. It occurs when the form of a photograph inextricably ties its subject and content together (more on subject, content and form in Chapter 1). This cohesion, accordance, or wholeness particular to photographs possessing “that something” is brought about more often and more successfully by photographers who consciously approach photography as a visual language and who use its grammatical elements to assist them in communicating specific meanings.

IMAGE © SEAN WILKINSON, UNTITLED, 1999, LONDON, FROM HIS SERIES TRACES.

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY?

Webster’s Third New International Dictionary defines grammar as “the basic elements or principles of a science, art, discipline, or practice.” So, in addition to its status as a subject which strikes fear into the hearts of grade-schoolers, grammar is the basis upon which all forms of language are built. And that is what this book is about—the grammar of photographic language—that is, the elements that comprise the technical foundation, as well as dictate the visual form, of all photographic images. This book identifies and examines four elements inherent to every image created through the action of light. These elements are: the photographic frame and its borders; quality of focus as determined by the aperture or lens; shutter speeds and their effects in relation to time and motion; and the physical media used to create the aggregate image. These elements do not operate in a hierarchical or sequential manner; they each play a unique role as they combine to form a coherent visual statement. This book explains the nature of these four elements of photographic grammar as well as how to control them technically; it demystifies their visual outcomes; and it examines their compositional, communicative, and conceptual implications. Consciously employed by a skilled photographer, these elements add advanced levels of depth, dimension, and meaning to all photographic images.

WHY DO THE ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY MATTER?

In her critical text, The Photograph: A Strange, Confined Space, Mary Price poses a question whose answer defines the relative success or failure of a photograph: “The critical and important question is two-fold: what does this photograph convey as information, and what does that information mean?” (Price, 1994, p. 76). In answering these questions, one must recognize that a photograph based on the grammatical structure of photographic language as it relates to the content of the image is better able to convey information in a meaningful way. The photographer’s control of the medium’s four grammatical elements operates much like a filter through which the viewer of the photograph sees the world. Often transparent to the viewer, these elements are the primary means through which “the world in front of the camera is transformed into the photograph” (Shore, 1998, p. 17). Just as combining parts of speech dictates the form and meaning of any sentence, these elements dictate the technical and visual properties of any photograph, and in so doing help to delineate its meaning. The significance of any filter lies in the ways in which it alters the outcome of something, and the photographer’s command of these elements operates as a filter between the physical world and the viewer of the image. In this case, insofar as the photographer understands and manipulates these elements, he or she is able to more clearly communicate a specific view of the world.

Beyond the structuring and filtering of information, additional parallels can be made between photographic and written language, and their uses. For example, both types of language have utilitarian as well as abstract or impractical uses. We use both photographic and written language to describe the world around us in informative ways; further, we use them to encapsulate, summarize, and communicate that information in ways that others can understand. We use them to “sell” others on our ideas and commodities, or as a means of propaganda and influence. We use them as a way to record our personal and collective histories in order to preserve those histories and share them with others, carrying them into the future. We use both types of language to interpret and evaluate events as they happen in our lives and in the larger world; we use them to theorize, synthesize, conjecture, and even to obfuscate. We also use them for the purpose of making art, as a means to express our personal perceptions of the world—its beauties and its horrors—and to speak to others in non-conventional uses of those languages, thereby broadening and shaping our collective understanding of both the subject and the language itself.

Whether we’re composing an informative technical manual (which I would equate with aspects of commercial photography), prose (photojournalism, documentary photography, or advertising), a personal journal (wedding photography or portraiture), or a collection of poems (fine art photography), the formal basis and structure of the language we use—its grammar—remain the same. The final form of a composed work is directly related to the fundamental principles upon which its language is based. Like written language, the basic rules of photographic grammar remain the same regardless of how or to what end we use them. To that end, when artists incorporate photographic imagery into a larger whole—a mixed media work of art or installation, or a photo essay accompanying text—these four grammatical elements must still be addressed in order to give the photographic aspect efficacy as a communicative tool. Sadly, and all too often, poor photographs are used as aspects of otherwise brilliant mixed media, multimedia, or installation works of art; the artists simply do not understand the basics of photographic grammar, materials, and exposure. That said, this book pertains specifically to the process of making two-dimensional photographic images, although its concepts can and should be applied more broadly to address issues pertaining to photographs used in holography, multimedia, installation, and myriad other avant-garde and three-dimensional applications.

The nature of the photographic medium’s communicative abilities (on all levels: descriptive, emotive, aesthetic, explanatory, expressive, and conceptual) lies in the fact that its technological underpinnings necessarily affect its visual outcomes. Very recently, the invention of digital media became the single largest technological change in photography since its invention more than 160 years ago. The focus since the inclusion and rapid spread of digital media throughout academic programs and the technical photography fields has led some to proclaim that “from this moment on, traditional analog photography is dead.” In this book, I claim it is not; there simply is no reason for digital media to replace traditional media throughout the discipline insofar as choice of media should be subordinate to the photographer’s ultimate goals for the image. Further, and perhaps more importantly, I propose that the elements of photography’s grammatical structure must be expertly addressed by the photographer, regardless of media choice and the end use of the images, and any use of photography that does not address the grammatical elements of photographic language fails to mine its potential. At a time when digital imaging technology threatens to completely replace wet darkroom traditions in college and university programs, it is imperative to recall the elements upon which the medium itself is based, and underscore the workings and outcomes of those elements to aspiring photographers.

This approach to teaching the elements of photography is geared to accomplish just that for intermediate-level practitioners across disciplines (fine art, documentary/photojournalism, and technical), and to eliminate the perceived barrier between traditional and digital media. It is based on the idea that it is more productive and expansive to study photography from a grammatical standpoint rather than from a “media” standpoint. In academia, once students have had practice in the range of available media (black and white, color, digital, traditional, alternative processes, etc.) it is most beneficial to teach the technical and aesthetic elements upon which photography is based and allow specific media choices and techniques to be subordinate to the image itself—skilled process should follow concept in order to most effectively communicate meaning. At best, photography programs will continue to offer a range of traditional and digital facilities, expertise, equipment, and materials that would allow students to define their own media needs based on their goals.

ABOUT THE FORMAT AND USE OF THIS BOOK

As previously stated, this book outlines four key technical elements that comprise the grammar of photographic language and make it a unique form of visual expression. The four elements are: the photographic frame and its borders; quality of focus as determined by the aperture or lens; shutter speeds and their effects in relation to time and motion; and the physical media used to create the aggregate image.

I chose these four elements specifically because together they answer a three-part question aimed at defining the essence of photographic language: “What are the essential technical elements inherent to photographic image making, in what ways do those elements dictate discrete visual outcomes, and what meanings do those outcomes suggest in relation to the subject?” Since these elements are inherent to the camera and physical media, they provide an excellent framework for studying photography. In the end, photographers who study these elements can successfully distill images from ideas; photographers who control these elements, consciously putting them into practice in their work, can create images that accurately represent their vision.

I begin with the chapter entitled Framing and Borders, since the imposed frame of the camera's viewfmder is the first and most fundamental means through which “the world in front of the camera is transformed into the photograph” (Shore, 1998, p. 17). The frame encapsulates the image content, and the outermost boundaries of the frame—the borders of the media and print—contribute significant visual information relating to the image itself. Within this chapter, I discuss basic two-dimensional compositional principles such as juxtaposition and picture planes, which are a natural outcome of translating the three-dimensional world onto a two-dimensional picture plane (Shore, 1998, p. 18). This first chapter goes on to explore aspects of using multiple frames, expanding on the idea of the frame to include single images created through gestalt. Chapter 2, Focus: Apertures, Lenses, and Depth of Field centers on the aperture as a portal through which the image is transported, types of lenses, and the relationship between the lens plane and the media plane. This chapter examines a variety of non-traditional lenses, as well as several notions of clarity associated with focus and depth of field. Chapter 3, Shutter Speeds: Time and Motion discusses the world of motion as it appears when recorded onto static media (light-sensitive film, paper, or sensor). This chapter outlines numerous technical considerations in order to demystify the process of successfully recording frozen, blurred, or multiple-exposure images. Finally, Chapter 4, Materials and Processes: The Aggregate Image deals with the physical attributes of the printed image and the meanings suggested by media choices in both image capture and output.

The format of this book leads to greater understanding of how photographs communicate by progressing from theory to practice through each of the four elements in succession. Each chapter begins with a thorough discussion of the specific element at hand and continues in an exploration of technical considerations, outlining the equipment and materials used to control and manipulate the visual outcomes of those elements. The technical component of each chapter includes basic how-to information. The Technical Tutorials Section of the text is organized in order by chapter. It includes demonstration photographs and Adobe Photoshop step-by-step tutorials for several specific techniques, both traditional and digital, in-camera and in-darkroom. The technical explanations are intended to illuminate how specific visual effects are achieved. They are not intended as an exhaustive look at methods; rather, they explain some of the common processes photographers use in order to encourage further exploration using the information as a springboard for experimentation.

Additionally, each chapter contains Portfolio Pages with selections from several outstanding contemporary photographers' work intended to enrich the chapter's theoretical and technical information. Alongside the work, the artist-photographers have provided personal and technical statements addressing their techniques and explaining how those techniques reinforce the creative and conceptual meanings of their work. The photographers' work is not about the elements of photography, but uses the elements expertly in a wide variety of ways in order to illuminate the viewer about the meaning of their work. The portfolio pages primarily represent fine art photography, but also include documentary and editorial photography in order to remind students of the possibilities that control of these elements offers all photographers.

Finally, each chapter ends with practical exercises designed to encourage photography practitioners to engage, experiment, and create using the theoretical and technical information provided. You are encouraged from the onset to choose a single topic, genre, or theme on which to concentrate throughout the exercises. In considering topics or “related themes,” you should choose something that is interesting and engaging both visually and conceptually, since you will spend considerable time building a body of work around it (for excellent advice on this, see the discussion entitled, “Selecting a Subject” in On Being a Photographer by David Hurn and Bill Jay). See Appendix A for more information concerning modes and constructs of image making. By defining and adhering to a specific subject or genre and completing the chapter exercises in sequence, photographers gain considerable understanding of their chosen topic, achieve an advanced level of control over the aesthetic appearance and communicative effectiveness of their photographs, and create a portfolio of images that thoroughly explores a single subject. While the exercises provide a framework for approaching a subject methodically, concentrating on a specific subject allows photographers to dedicate energy usually spent “wondering what to shoot” on the more important task of making photographs. When you complete the exercises—I recommend proceeding from the first through the last chapters in succession—you have a body of work possessing a natural coherence. Once finished you may choose to repeat the exercises choosing a new topic.

I have taught photography for more than a decade using this approach and am consistently amazed at the power of imagery, both technically and creatively, that interested practitioners achieve once they begin to explore the grammar of photography. Using this approach, you will gain solid practice in the foundations of photographic technique, a more concrete understanding of photographic visual literacy, and a strong body of work with which to demonstrate to portfolio reviewers, employers, and image buyers your unique vision, knowledge, and talent. You will build self-confidence with the medium's technical principles and how those principles translate into visual images, and develop a working method that is proven to be engaging and successful when exploring a subject using the medium of photography. You will stop “taking pictures” and begin “making photographs” as you learn that while anyone can take pictures, photographers understand and utilize the medium's inherent grammar in order to make photographs. Through practice, you will begin to make photographs that accurately communicate your message whether it's political, personal, poetic, spiritual, aesthetic, or journalistic. Using the techniques outlined in this book, you will be well on your way to making the photographs you envision with success and a sense of personal style.

EQUIPMENT AND EXPERIENCE

The information and techniques included here were developed for intermediate-level photographers possessing a solid foundation in the technical aspects of camera operation and exposure (i.e., metering the amount of light in the scene, controlling ISO, f-stops, and shutter speeds), as well as a fundamental working knowledge of darkroom printing and/or Adobe Photoshop. For a refresher in basic exposure, see Appendix B. This text can also be used by beginning or advanced practitioners as a supplement to technical texts or to provide a broader theoretical and visual perspective. The techniques offered here are by no means exhaustive studies of the visual possibilities of photographic image making; rather, they are tools for developing a deeper understanding of the possibilities inherent to photographic practice. These techniques may be practiced with historical, traditional, digital, or a combination of media. Additional equipment such as tripods, filters, alternative lenses, and darkroom equipment are discussed, but are not required in order to practice and create a sound body of photographic work using this book.