1  Introduction

The Industry

The building services industry is based on engineering principles that are applied to the construction of buildings and the built environment. In many respects, building services are responsible for the artificial environment in which we live and work, and associated with that the environmental condition of our planet.

Its origins as a science and technology are well documented, not least the use of Archimedes’ ‘spiral for movement of water’ and the concept of under-floor heating in Roman palaces. More recently, it has evolved in response to the demands of population growth and the expectation of comfortable shelter, convenience and a healthy home and workplace environment. As an industry it is vast in terms of the diversity of professions and trades that it encompasses.

Availability of fossil fuels became readily and abundantly available during the mid- to latter part of the 20th century, and building design responded with mechanical and electrical systems that in many instances consumed the fuel excessively. Large-single glazed areas caused overheating, glare and solar discomfort in the summer, combined with cold draughts and high heat losses in the winter. Thermostatic control was often rudimentary and compensated by opening and closing windows accordingly. The industry has responded, and buildings are now designed to be sustainable, energy conscious and environmentally friendly. Inevitably this has changed the image of the industry professionals from those that run pipes or cables from one place to another, to that of high-profile consultants on building design with responsibilities for environmental issues, fuel conservation and energy performance.

Progress has been effected through government legislation formulated from consultation with the industry professional bodies and research organisations. Advances have also been made by product manufacturers’ research and development in response to market competition.

The industry is generally divided between design and installation. Design is undertaken by specialist consultancies and installation undertaken by specialist contractors. The latter subcontracted on site under the overall administration of a construction management main contractor. Some design and installation practices exist, which simplifies contractual and communication relationships.

Building Services in the Construction Process

Legislative and Support Documents

Statute – an Act of Parliament that establishes a standard of law. Primary legislation.

Statutory Instrument – a regulation made under a statute to provide guidance that satisfies a particular standard of law. Secondary legislation.

The number of statutes and associated secondary legislation that influence the building services industry is extensive. Some of the most significant include:

• The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act.

• The Building Act.

• The Water Industry Act.

• The Consumer Protection Act.

• The Housing Act.

• The Clean Air Act.

• The Environment Act.

• The Energy Act.

• The Climate Change Act.

There is also a category of legislation known as by-laws. These are authorised by a state charter that allows a municipal or corporate administration to effect a standard of law through its own regulation (e.g. Greater London Authority and by-laws relating to Inner London).

Practice guidance documents – often quoted in support of legislation. These too are extensive, some of which include:

• British Standards (BS).

• European Standards (BS EN).

• International Standards (BS EN ISO).

• Building Research Establishment:

  Digests

  Good Building Guides

  Good Repair Guides

  Information Papers.

• Loss Prevention Certification Board (Loss Prevention Standards).

• CIBSE Guides.

• British Board of Agrément – Certificates.

• The Institution of Electrical Engineers’ Regulations (BS 7671).

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act

This statute is fundamental in application to all persons engaged in the workplace and to any others that could be affected by the work activity. Administration is through the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) from national, regional and locally based offices. The HSE inspectorate is empowered to access building sites and other workplaces to review procedures and safety records. Where appropriate, improvement and prohibition notices can be issued and if necessary, prosecutions.

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act incorporates numerous supplementary Statutory Instruments. Some of the more relevant include:

• Construction (Design and Management) Regulations.

• Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

• Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

• Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations.

• Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH).

• Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations (CAWS).

• Manual Handling Operations Regulations.

• Work at Height Regulations.

• Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations.

• Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations (COMAH).

• Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER).

• Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations.

• Electricity at Work Regulations.

• Gas Safety (Management) Regulations.

• Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations.

Other related statutes – regulation of environmental standards with particular regard to health and safety in the workplace is also effected through the long-established Factories Act and the Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act. In addition to many other commitments under these statutes, employers are obliged to provide acceptable levels of lighting, temperature and atmospheric conditions.

• Construction (Design and Management) Regulations.

  These are applicable to all building and engineering construction work involving more than 500 employee days or lasting more than 30 days. They create an integrated and planned approach to health and safety, with responsibility apportioned to every person involved in the project workplace. The project client has overall responsibility and must appoint a CDM coordinator (usually the architect), provide them with information on health and safety matters and advise them of perceived hazards and commitments to care of third parties. The CDM coordinator must ensure that the principal contractor (the builder) has prepared a construction phase plan. This must contain specific reference to identification and assessment of all risks (i.e. health and safety), and information conveying the plan’s content to all specialist building services subcontractors and others engaged in the work. See also Part 1 of the Building Construction Handbook (R. Chudley and R. Greeno 2012 Routledge).

• Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

  [Now withdrawn as an independent set of regulations, but the requirements are retained and incorporated within the CDM Regulations.] These establish objectives for the well-being of all persons involved in a construction site-related project. The main requirements apply to groundwork, ventilation of workplaces, accessibility of workplaces (ladders), safety at the workplace (scaffold), welfare (first-aid, etc.), accommodation (shelter, rest room, sanitary facilities) and protective clothing. See also Part 2 of the Building Construction Handbook.

• Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

  These cover the wide range of health, safety and welfare issues mentioned above, but have particular application to most workplaces other than construction work on building sites. This can include schools, hospitals, offices, factories, hotels, places of entertainment, etc. Responsibility is placed on employers to satisfy certain minimum standards for their employees and also for others on their premises, possibly those attending for purposes of plant maintenance, repair or alterations.

• Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations.

  These regulations provide guidance on the general duties and obligations that employers have to their employees and third parties. They also contain guidance on the responsibilities that employees have to themselves and their colleagues.

• Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH).

  These require product manufacturers to declare on their product packaging any possible health risk that could be associated with the contents (e.g. plastic pipe solvent jointing adhesive is labelled ‘Irritant’ and ‘Do Not Breath Vapour’ among other guidance). Manufacturers of and employers using products having a potential health risk to personnel, are required to determine what safety measures and other controls are needed. Where toxins, irritants, solvents, dusts, etc. are apparent, users are required to wear appropriate personal protective clothing. Where applications create fumes or other air contaminants, employers are required to monitor exposure, retain records and to document procedures.

• Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations (CAWS).

  Since the 1970s, it has become apparent that some people with respiratory health problems have related this to previous employment that exposed them to asbestos insulation on industrial pipes and boilers. Until this time, insulation was commonly produced from a slurry of asbestos fibres mixed with water. The slurry was applied by hand to a wire-reinforced surface. Many people who worked with asbestos, notably pipe-fitters and laggers, have since suffered lung disorders (asbestosis) leading to claims against former employers and manufacturers. There is now a legacy of asbestos in industrial plant rooms, process plant and hospital services. In these workplace situations an employer is obliged to undertake a risk assessment by survey and analysis. The related Asbestos Licensing Regulations provide strict guidelines on how to handle asbestos. Where identified it should only be dealt with by specialists.

• Manual Handling Operations Regulations.

  These require employers to provide operatives with training in the correct procedures for handling and carrying equipment without incurring injury, to recognise their limitations and to identify appropriate use of mechanical handling facilities. This includes planning for efficient use of storage and loading areas to avoid unnecessary double handling, and informing suppliers of suitable quantities and package sizes relative to available resources.

• Work at Height Regulations.

  These regulations place emphasis on employers to ensure that suitable and sufficient safe access facilities are provided. For building services applications this will include work below ground, work at ground level and above. Support to trench excavations, barriers to prevent falls, scaffolding and ladders for use above ground and in all situations suitable means for safe access and egress, must be constructed by experienced and qualified persons. Equipment inspections and safety reports must be undertaken within seven days of use, following adverse weather and after alterations. Reports are mandatory and must be retained on file. See also Part 2 (scaffold) and Part 4 (trench support) of the Building Construction Handbook.

• The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations.

  These require employers to provide health and safety signs. In order to draw attention to potential hazards they are commonly seen at the entrances to building sites and are colour coded according to significance:

  Prohibition – red and circular, showing what must not be done.

  Mandatory – blue and circular, showing what must be done.

  Warning – yellow and triangular, showing a risk, hazard or danger.

  Safe – green square or oblong, showing escape routes, first-aid, etc.

• Control of Major Accidents Hazards Regulations (COMAH).

  COMAH regulations apply specifically to the practical use of dangerous substances or equipment. Every operative must take all necessary measures to prevent accidents with equipment in their charge and to limit their consequences. An example is an awareness of precautionary procedures with the fire and explosive potential of welding equipment, particularly portable units.

• Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER).

  These regulations relate to increased use of mechanical plant for conveying people (hoists) and materials (hoists and cranes) around building sites. The regulations are principally about the safe and correct use of this equipment with regard to assessment of risks by trained operatives.

• Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations.

  Employers are required to provide suitable personal protective equipment (PPE) to employees who may be exposed to any identifiable risk to their health and safety. Self-employed subcontract personnel are required to provide themselves with PPE. Examples of protective clothing include earmuffs, safety helmets, safety footwear, eye shields, gloves and overalls.

• Electricity at Work Regulations.

  These regulations ensure that the electrical installation and equipment in places of employment is of a satisfactory standard, suitably detached and insulated to prevent accidental damage. Provision must be made for isolation of individual circuits and overall power cut off. Responsibility for this is not solely with the employer, as employees and the self-employed also have responsibility for safe use of electricity in their work situation. All places of work apply and the regulations are effected under four main areas:

  Installation systems.

  Connected equipment.

  Conductors.

  Competence of people using or near to electrical equipment.

• Gas Safety (Management) Regulations and the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations.

  The ‘management’ regulations apply to the conveyance of natural gas to its point of use in domestic and other premises. Four main areas are covered:

  Conveyance management through the network of pipes to end users.

  Procedures to be adopted during an emergency.

  Procedures for dealing with incidents such as a gas escape.

  Composition of the gas conveyed.

Both regulations include duties of care by providers, installers and landlords to their customers. Emphasis is on safe installation and maintenance of gas appliances with work only undertaken by qualified persons. For this purpose the HSE recognises engineers on the ‘Gas Safe Register’.

The ‘installation and use’ regulations specifically require landlords and property managing agents to have installations and appliances in their care checked at least once annually. Gas safety certificates are to be kept for at least two years and tenants issued with a safety check record within 28 days of check completion.

The Building Act

The Building Act of 1984 consolidates previous by-laws and enables the Secretary of State (Dept. for Communities and Local Government) to make regulations for the design and construction of buildings. This includes the provision of building services facilities and equipment.

Building Regulations – Statutory Instruments made under the Building Act to include approval of building inspectors and inspection fees. The main aspect of the Building Regulations is establishment of minimum performance standards applicable to the construction and environmental performance of buildings. These standards are supported by practical guidance Approved Documents that are regarded as an acceptable means for compliance.

Approved Documents – England (other UK regions may vary)

The Water Industry Act

Until 1999 this statute enabled the various water supply authorities in the UK to create their own by-laws. Since then these diverse by-laws have been consolidated and replaced by the following Statutory Instruments:

• Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations [England and Wales]

• Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations [England and Wales]

• Water By-laws [Scotland] – Water [Scotland] Act

These apply to all mains water supply systems from where the service pipe enters the property boundary to include fittings and appliances connected thereafter. The principal objective of these regulations and by-laws is to prevent water wastage, misuse, excessive consumption and contamination. Building owners, occupiers and installers have a responsibility to ensure that the installation satisfies the regulations. Architects and developers must also satisfy the regulations in advance of future owners. Where an approved contractor (see WRAS below) is engaged a signed certificate will be issued on completion. Notice containing a description of the work must be given to the water undertaker for new installations. Approval must also be sought for any significant changes, alterations or additions. Some examples include installation of a swimming pool or pond exceeding 10,000 litres and automatic garden-watering systems.

The Department for Regional Development in Northern Ireland also has water regulations that are similar to the standards applied elsewhere in the UK. They are made under the Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland, conferred by the Water and Sewerage Services Order as the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations (Northern Ireland) and the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations (Northern Ireland).

Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS) – an advisory body based in Newport, South Wales. Its purpose is to support water supply legislation through communications and publications, particularly the Water Regulations Guide. Other activities include consultation with local and national governments, professional and trade organisations and product manufacturers. In addition, development of test criteria for materials and fittings, publication of a directory of approved products, approval and listing of installers in a directory and representing the industry on development of national and international standards.

Further Relevant Statutes

Consumer Protection Act – should ensure that products and components are of a quality standard without defect. In the context of building services it applies to fittings and appliances such as gas and electric cookers as well as central components such as boilers and refrigeration units. A consumer provided with defective or unsafe goods can pursue legal claims for damage to property and other losses caused by the item. Suppliers, manufacturers and importers are all liable.

Housing Act – this contains a number of measures relating to landlords maintaining their properties in a safe and healthy manner to safeguard the interests of tenants and visitors. A housing fitness standard in the form of a hazard and risk assessment plan must be provided in accordance with the Housing Health and Safety Rating System.

Closely associated is the Energy Performance of Buildings (Certificates and Inspections) (England and Wales) Regulations. This statutory instrument has significance for the building services industry by requiring an Energy Performance Certificate to be provided with:

• Newly constructed buildings.

• Existing buildings that are extended.

• Buildings that are altered, e.g. houses converted to flats.

• Refurbished buildings >1000m² floor area where the work includes provision of fuel/energy consuming equipment.

• Marketing particulars for buildings for sale or rent.

Certificates rate a property on a scale ranging from A at the upper end down to G. Its purpose is to encourage householders to update and refurbish central heating systems, particularly with installation of high-efficiency condensing boilers and thermostatic controls. The overall objective is to reduce fuel bills and the carbon emission impact on the environment.

Clean Air Act – passed in response to the atmospheric pollution/smog of the early 1950s. The causes were, to a large extent, discharge from industrial furnaces and boiler plant, coal-burning electricity power generators and on the smaller scale but more predominant domestic flues. Local authorities are empowered to prohibit dark smoke, grit, dust and fumes from these sources of pollution by encouraging use of smokeless fuels to reduce sulphur levels and construction of tall chimneys.

Environment Act – sets out a strategy for protection of the environment. Factors and criteria relevant to the building services industry include air quality with regard to flue gases, drainage and pollution control and water resource management.

Energy Act – principle provisions:

• Feed-in tariff – a financial incentive and support for small-scale low-carbon electricity-generating projects up to five megawatts (5MW) capacity. See page 668.

• Renewable heat incentive – allows for the establishment of a financial support programme for renewable heat generated anywhere from households to large industrial sites. Examples include biogas or biomass processing, particularly where the biogas is used to supplement the national gas network. See page 669.

• Smart meters – designed to end estimated gas and electricity bills and meter reading. Smart meters transmit and receive data for the energy supplier and the consumer. They display the amount of fuel energy being used, with an estimate of cost at any time. They also compute carbon dioxide emission information and compare daily, weekly and monthly fuel use. A facility to allow micro-generated energy to be sold back to the grid is included. The objective is for every home to have a smart meter by the end of 2020.

• Green Deal – encourages business and home owners to effect more green technologies into their properties at no initial cost. Costs recouped through energy bill savings over time.

• Ofgem – the gas and electricity markets authority. Required to reinforce its contribution to sustainable development. To have amended powers to run offshore transmission licensing more effectively. Transfer of various regulatory functions such as gas and electricity meter testing to the Dept. for Energy and Climate Change.

• Carbon capture and storage – creation of regulations to enable private sector investment in reducing carbon emissions from fossil fuel power-stations.

• Offshore oil and gas licensing – improvement of the licensing process to respond to changes in the commercial environment.

• Nuclear waste – decommissioning costs to be met by power-station operators.

Climate Change Act – the principal objective of this statute is to control greenhouse gas emissions. A target has been established of at least an 80% reduction by 2050 relative to 1990 figures and a 34% reduction of carbon emissions by 2020. Greenhouse gases are mainly carbon dioxide (72%), methane (18%), water vapour, nitrous oxide, ozone and halocarbons. The Earth ‘s atmosphere comprises nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%); the remaining 1% are greenhouse gases. Although relatively small by percentage, greenhouse gases can have a big impact on climate change.

British, European and International Standards

The British Standards Institution was established in 1901 as an independent and impartial body to provide a quality standard for products and practices. Its principles are much the same today, with its well-known Kitemark appearing on items appropriate to all industries and businesses. In building services the range of BSs is extensive, affecting materials, components, design and installation procedures. BSs are in effect information solutions for guidance, but may be quoted as deemed to satisfy provisions in the Building Regulations and other Statutory Instruments. Reference documents are prefixed BS followed by an allocated number, e.g. BS 1566-1: Copper indirect cylinders for domestic purposes.

Other documents published by the BSI:

• Codes of practice – these are guides for good site practice. They may also have BS status, e.g. BS 5250: Code of practice for control of condensation in buildings.

• Publicly available specifications – function as a developmental standard for the creation of management systems, product quality standards or codes of practice. In due course they are reviewed and either become an established BS or are withdrawn. Prefixed PAS.

• Drafts for development – these are BSs or Codes of practice in the process of completion, where some data is still to be formulated. Prefixed DD or DC (Draft for Completion).

• Published documents – papers not conveniently placed in any of the preceding categories. Prefixed PD.

European standards are gradually replacing standards to one country, as products become harmonised across the European Community. These standards are administered by the Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) which incorporates the BSI. Compliant BSs are prefixed BS EN, e.g. BS EN 274-1: Waste fittings for sanitary appliances. Requirements.

The International Organisation for Standardisation (known as ISO) is a worldwide federation incorporating about 100 national standards bodies to promote international exchange of goods and services by establishing a uniformly acceptable quality standard. ISO documents are compatible with BSs when they are prefixed BS ISO or BS EN ISO, e.g. BS EN ISO 8434-1: Metallic tube connections for fluid power and general use.

Building Research Establishment (BRE)

The Building Research Station was created in 1921 as a civil service department to develop initiatives for improving housing standards. Over the years it incorporated several other research bodies including the Fire Research Station. During the 1970s it changed its name and in 1997 became a private organisation owned by the charity BRE Trust. The Trust has representatives from industry, universities, building owners, managers and users. The BRE has some government funding in addition to income from commercial programmes, consultancy, a bookshop, research contracts, and testing and product certification. The latter includes LPCB fire products and security services (see below), and Building Regulations support documents.

BRE publications are extensive; some of the better known include:

• Digests – up-to-date topics relating to all aspects of construction design and technology. Presented with illustrations and photographs in easy-to-read format, e.g. DG 339: Condensing boilers.

• Good Building Guides – highly illustrated practice guidance providing technical advice and solutions, e.g. GG 40: Protecting pipes from freezing.

• Good Repair Guides – illustrated applications to remedial procedures for rectifying common defects, e.g. GR9: Repairing and replacing rainwater goods.

• Information Papers – summary findings of recent BRE research into practical advice and solutions, e.g. IP12/05: Small-scale building integrated wind power systems.

Loss Prevention Certification Board (LPCB) – this organisation originated in the late 1800s when building fire insurers formed a subdivision known as the Fire Offices Committee. This later became known as the Loss Prevention Council (LPC) until changing its name to the LPCB in the 1980s. Long before the Building Regulations came into being, the LPC produced technical standards and specifications for fire prevention and control. These standards are now updated and published as Loss Prevention Standards by BRE Certification Ltd. See also page 596.

Further Design and Installation Standards

CIBSE – The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers incorporate an extensive range of professional practice interests. This includes a structured membership symbolised by individual qualifications and experience, publication of hands-on practical guides, scientific research papers and technical applications relating to design theory. The Institution is also representative on many national and international research and standardisation bodies. CIBSE publications are often provided as support to the Building Regulations and other national standards. They are produced in the following categories:

• Guides

• Technical Manuals

• Application Manuals

• Knowledge Series

• Commissioning Codes

BBA – The British Board of Agrément is a representative member of EOTA.* The Board’s purpose is to provide a facility for accrediting manufacturers’ new products, services and innovative use of materials that are not otherwise covered by a British or European Standard, or other conforming documentation. Agrément Certificates may also be provided as a supplement to show national or international conformity. BBA Certificates are proof of rigorous testing and assessment, ensuring compliance with Building Regulations and European Technical Approvals (ETA*) enabling products to achieve CE* marking. Testing procedures are monitored by UKAS,* e.g. Cert. No. 06/H122: HDPE Twin Wall Drainage System.

*See pages 688 and 689.

IEE – The Institution of Electrical Engineers publish Wiring Regulations as a guide to cost-effective and safe installation practice. The British Standards Institution has adopted these regulations into the national standard BS 7671: Requirements for electrical installations. IEE Wiring Regulations. The most recent editions are to a large extent harmonised with the requirements of the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) and CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation).

CIPHE – The Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering is the representative body for practitioners of plumbing and related employment. Its membership is structured to the various factions within the industry, with a registration scheme for qualified plumbers and plumbing companies. The Institute has many publications that contribute to design and installation practice. These include:

• Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

• Technical Papers

• Dataflow Sheets

• System Design and Installation Guides

CAPITA GROUP – Administers a mandatory ‘gas safe register’ of competent* gas installation and appliance maintenance technicians. Members are required to have suitable qualifications such as a NVQ in Gas Services. Thereafter, competence assessment is through the Nationally Accredited Certification Scheme (ACS) with renewal every five years. A technical library of information is available for their members. They also provide gas safety ‘Fact Sheets’ primarily to promote consumer awareness of gas and carbon monoxide leakage, and as guidance documents for landlords with regard to customer safety certificates and Building Regulations compliance certificates. Formerly the Council for Registered Gas Installers (CORGI).

OFTEC – The Oil Firing Technical Association has a register of technicians suitably qualified as competent* for oil-fired equipment installation and maintenance. Their publications include Easy Guides, Information Sheets and a range of Standards.

HETAS – The Heating Equipment Testing and Approval Scheme provides a quality standard accreditation service for domestic solid fuel appliances. Appliances are assessed to British or European Standards for ‘safety and fitness for purpose’ and where approved, branded with a three-tick logo and listed in the organisations register. There is also a register of competent* installers.

*Note: The term ‘competent’ is used in the Building Regulations as recognition of gas safe, OFTEC and HETAS registered personnel for installation of heat-producing appliances.

Notes