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A CASE OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN AFRICA

The University of Botswana

Dorothy Mpabanga

Introduction

This chapter explores the concept of international management education in the context of the Botswana. International management education is an important component of learning in institutes of higher education. Countries around the globe including those in the Southern Africa region are enhancing their programmes and governance structures in order to attract students and faculty members across countries. The reduction in government funding to higher education and budgetary constraints in developed and developing countries has forced universities to enhance their programmes, ranking and reputation mainly to raise revenue and remain competitive. This chapter aim to assess the extent to which international management education is incorporated into the curriculum in universities in Botswana.

The University of Botswana admits students from within and outside the country and offers various programmes that entail international management education to attract more students. In an effort to increase the international student population and to enhance the content of its programmes of study, the University has established partnerships with international universities. The University has also established an international office that encourages faculty and student exchange in the areas of teaching, research and consultancy. The exchange programmes are aimed at ensuring that students gain international experience in terms of courses and a diverse learning environment and through courses offered in other universities in different countries. As outlined below, international management entails various dimensions of learning and conducting business, managing finances and people, and formulating strategies across borders. International management entails managing organizations that have people from across cultures and this means managing different experiences, beliefs and behaviours. Offering courses, modules and programmes in international managerial programmes will ensure that managers from across the globe are equipped with knowledge, skills and capabilities of managing international business, people and organizations in diverse cultures. This chapter therefore attempts to assess the extent of international management education in three institutions of higher learning in Botswana and compare it with another leading institution in Africa, the University of Cape Town.

Defining international management education

According to Eden et al. in Chapter 4, international education management entails different dimensions, including international business, international management and international strategic management. Eden et al. (and following references therein) view international business as the study of enterprises across borders that can be done at various levels of analysis including economic, socio-cultural and political. Furthermore, international business can be viewed as a business activity across national borders. Boddewyn (1997) asserts that international business involves multinational enterprises negotiating trade and investment. Daniels and Radebaugh (2001) view international business as all commercial activities whereas Cullen and Parboteeah (2010) define international business in terms of activities that involve business beyond domestic borders. Czinkota et al. (2003) view international business as international transactions carried out across borders in order to satisfy individuals, companies and organizations. Eden et al. (this volume) have similar dimensions of international business to include international environmental impact, cross-country comparative studies, business processes and organizational behaviour in different countries.

It is argued that international management forms part of international management education. According to Hodgetts et al. (2006), international management entails applying management concepts and techniques in a multinational environment. Cullen (2001) defined international management as formulation of strategies and design of management systems that take advantage of international opportunities and respond to international threat (cited in Eden et al., this volume). Beamish et al. (1997) argue that international management is how firms become and remain international in scope. An interesting view is put forward by Holt (1998), who argues that international management explores how people from different cultures work together, compete against each other and try to cope with one another's differences. Whereas McFalin and Sweeney (1998) assert that international management's goal is to achieve a firm's international objectives through procurement, distribution and using companies' resources across countries.

Defining what constitutes management would help ascertain and appreciate the concept of international management. According to Fayol (cited in Robbins et al., 2011), management is concerned with organizing, planning, coordinating, commanding and controlling the affairs of an organization. International management therefore entails performing the above functions in an international or cross-border environment. International strategic management is referred to as the collaborations across national borders and involves the decision-making process across borders in relation to strategic objectives, joint ventures, markets, management systems and resources (Eden et al., this volume). Eden further defines international strategic management processes as similar to domestic processes; the only difference is that decisions, commitments and actions are taken in the international business environment. However, they further argue that international strategic management is complicated by the fact that companies operate within an increased geographical environment where diversity exists due to the different policies of the host government, different actions of employees and cultural experiences of managers and employees.

According to Chung (2007), an institution to promote international management education in the Pacific was established through a partnership.This objective of establishing such an institution was to incorporate programmes and courses that exposed participants to, for example, different cultures and international business practices. As pointed out by Chung, changes in the domestic and international macro-economic variables forced countries such as the United States and Asia to open up their economies. Similarly, universities were forced to adjust their programmes to incorporate internalization of business into their curriculum and business schools (Chung, 2007: 17). Chung asserts that there is inadequacy in the delivery of programmes in the discipline of international business, including shortages of faculty specializing in this field of study and disappointing numbers of graduates majoring in international business. Chung blames such a trend on the inability of business schools to build capacity in international business and the lack of interest of faculty members to ‘internationalise’ (2007: 18).

According to Burquel and vanVught (2010: 243):

the European higher education sector is highly fragmented and the main drivers underlying European policies are to support a shift towards a more powerful and integrated knowledge economy and building of diversity of institutions.

The authors further point out that higher education (HE) institutions in Europe are viewed as important players in supporting competitiveness, economic growth, job creation and social cohesion. The change in the context under which HE institutions in Europe are managed has resulted in the need to adopt different styles that entail professionalism, focus on quality, efficiency and excellence in order to make them more market oriented and enhance institutional governance (Burquel andVanVught, 2010). Higher education institutions operate in a competitive environment where, for example, they have to compete for students, funding classifications and ranking, and therefore need even more to adopt strategic planning and management tools in order ‘to improve and demonstrate their performance and maintain their ranking in the market place’ (Burquel andVanVught, 2010: 244).

Institutions of higher learning in Africa are also moving towards this trend of aiming to be competitive and adopting the modern principles of management applied in universities in developed countries. For instance, universities in southern Africa are establishing partnerships with international universities, particularly from the United Kingdom, in an effort to improve their rankings and reputations in terms of governance and diversity of programmes offered. Establishing these partnerships is also aimed at attracting students and improving the financial performance of institutes of higher learning. Universities in Africa are also faced with reduced funding from their governments and are looking for other sources to raise revenue. Creating partnerships with international, reputable universities has come as a source of competitive advantage as well as raising the much-needed source of revenue to operate universities. For example, colleges and universities in Botswana, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa and Zambia have partnered international universities and are offering part-time and full-time programmes to students of certificate, diploma, degree and post-graduate levels so that aspiring African students can progress from the lowest up to the highest level of university qualification.

Context of international management education

Tertiary education institutions in Botswana have transformed over the years (Tabulawa, 2010) and continue to strive to incorporate international management education into their curriculum. In order to enhance the existing educational programmes in the country, the Tertiary Education Council and the Botswana Training Authority were established to regulate, guide, accredit and to ensure quality assurance of tertiary institution programmes (Botswana Government, 2003). A National Qualification Framework is being developed in order to strengthen the quality of education and enhance articulation and coordination of education programmes (Botswana Government, 2010). The number of tertiary education institutions has increased in the country in the last ten years due to the government's change of students' sponsorship model. Due to budgetary constraints and the need to promote sustainable education provision, the government introduced cost recovery measures that included sponsorship not only to external/international tertiary institutions but also to sponsor students enrolled in local tertiary institutions (Botswana Government, 2003). The change in student sponsorship to enrol in local tertiary institutions resulted in local tertiary institutions reviewing and enhancing their educational programmes in an effort to attract students to enrol on their programmes at certificate, diploma and degree levels. Enrolment in tertiary institutions has increased since the change in the sponsorship model; for example, the share of students in private tertiary institutions was 45 per cent for other private sector higher education, 31 per cent for the University of Botswana and 9.7 per cent for public tertiary institutions in health sciences, colleges of education and distance learning (Botswana Government, 2010).

Introducing sponsorship to local tertiary institutions resulted in introducing competitions in the tertiary education sector. In order to be competitive and attract students into their programmes, tertiary institutions have established partnerships with international universities. These partnerships have led to incorporation of international programmes in a variety of fields including programmes in business and management, finance, marketing engineering, computer science and IT courses. These partnerships have also enhanced local programmes in terms of introducing international dimensions into the curriculum and accreditation standards. Local tertiary education institutions have paired with colleges and universities in the United Kingdom, Asia and Australia and co-offered programmes at certificate, diploma and degree levels, including executive MBAs. As mentioned above, the Botswana Training Authority and the Tertiary Education Council regulate, coordinate and monitor the accreditation of programmes. International organizations and governments of developed countries such as Japan (engineering and international relations) and Russia (science- and engineering-related programmes) are supplementing the Botswana government's effort in funding higher education.

According to De Meyers (2012: 338), globalization has increased due to outside pressure, the need for accreditation and pressure from alumni and faculty members who love to travel. As pointed out by De Meyers (2012), some universities or tertiary institutions are very quick to announce that they will be offering international management programmes but in reality cannot deliver them. Some of the challenges of implementing plans to include international management in the curriculum are lack of faculty members experienced and specializing in these disciplines. De Meyers argues that international management education entails international business courses and participation in international exchange by faculty and students.

Studying at the University of Botswana

The University of Botswana was first established in 1972 and was known as the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (Botswana Government, 2003). The University was officiated in 1982 and has since expanded in size in terms of physical development, academic programmes, student size and other activities. For example, student enrolment has grown to 14,706, semesterization has been introduced and a variety of diverse programmes are available at undergraduate and post-graduate level (University of Botswana, 2009/10). The University strives for excellence in teaching, research, engagement and consultancy (University of Botswana, 2009/10). The University of Botswana has nine faculties, comprising Business; Education; Engineering and Technology; School of Graduate Studies; Health Sciences; Humanities; Science; Social Sciences and the School of Medicine.As shown in Table 18.1, male students dominate the faculty of sciences and engineering while there are more females in other faculties, including business.

Source: University of Botswana (2009/10).

ICT facilities at the University of Botswana

The University has, over the years, invested in ICT infrastructure and facilities in order to promote and enhance teaching and learning (University of Botswana, 2009/10). For example, in 2002 the University of Botswana introduced technology-enhanced learning tools such as WebCT and e-learning. Under the WebCT programme, students can access information on course outlines, course material and web links to course-related topics. Lecturers on the other hand are trained in the use of WebCT, uploading and updating course material, using the blackboard, video-conferencing, establishing on-line courses, grading on-line and using the safe-assign tool to check for plagiarism. Electronic learning facilities also include online discussions with full-time and part-time students as well as online and distance students. Lecturers and students are able to utilize a variety of electronic programmes and ICT facilities under the umbrella of WebCT and e-learning (Melelu, 2004; Mpabanga and Obasi, 2008). In addition, the University has an ITS system and ITS enabler system for online uploading and accessing of student grades, use of an ITS system for administrative purposes, for example, performance management system, staff leave application database, and for ITS/oracle use for financial management.

University of Botswana international partnerships

The University has established international collaborations with African and overseas universities through its faculties, centres of excellence and International Office.This is mainly aimed at promoting international partnerships and diverse culture of learning, curricula development, accreditation of programmes, student and academic staff exchange, research and consultancy (University of Botswana, 2009/10). As stated in the university values, the Institute of Higher Learning intends to promote internationalism through the global world of scholarship, responsiveness to international issues and recruiting international faculty members and students. The University's effort to establish international partnerships has paid off, as the population of foreign students has increased to 6 per cent. The students and faculty exchange programmes have yielded positive results as the diversity of students changes every semester when new students from all over the world join the University. The University has a diverse student population from countries such as Germany, Japan, Finland, Sweden, Holland, Norway and the United States. According to the University of Botswana (2009/10), the number of exchange students increased from 61 in 2008/09 academic year to 75 during 2009/10. Exchange students from the University of Botswana are also based in these countries. In addition, the University has witnessed an increase in international faculty members through the Fulbright exchange fellowship and recruitment of foreign staff to join the University's academia. The University partners with community youth through its student activities; for example, through different interest/faculty-based societies such economics, the business clinic, environmental science, politics and engineering.

In an effort to enhance student learning and the living experience, the University has other programmes that students can enrol on to enrich their experience on campus. For example, a first-year experience programme is designed to improve student life on campus, known as the Living and Learning Communities programme. There is also the HIV/Aids programme, programmes for students living with disabilities, as well as health, wellness and cultural activities (University of Botswana, 2009/10). In addition, the student experience is enriched by other activities such as the communities for charitable/volunteer services and other events and activities that engage students and outside partners. Examples of community outreach programmes and activities include the Remember and Give (RAG) and Youth for Health (YOHO) activities. All students, whether local or international, are encouraged to engage in these activities in order to have diverse tertiary educational and learning experiences.

Undergraduate international business and strategic management teaching

As outlined above, the University of Botswana has various programmes in the nine faculties that exist. The faculty of business offers bachelor of business administration degree (BBA) programmes in accountancy, finance, management, marketing, information systems, tourism and hospitality management, and combined majorin accounting (University of Botswana,2010/11). The faculty offers diploma courses in accounting and business studies. The faculty also offers a Master's of Business Degree (MBA) on a full- or part-time basis (University of Botswana, 2012/13). The undergraduate calendar was reviewed in order to identify any courses in international business, international management and international strategic management. It was interesting to find out that the Bachelor of Business Administration Degree did not have major or minor areas of international, business or strategic management education in which students could choose to specialize. All seven Bachelor of Business Administration Degree programmes have courses in management, finance, organizational behaviour and strategic management at first- to fourth-year levels. Surprisingly, there were only six courses that have international management education. These courses were at the third and fourth year of the undergraduate degree programme. The first course that covers international management education is offered under the Bachelor of Business Administration Degree in Marketing and entails international marketing at the third-year level. The second courses are international business and global business strategy offered at the fourth-year level. Graduate students have diverse courses in international management related to their disciplines of study as shown in Table 18.2. The last course that specifically deals with aspects of international education management is the Bachelor of Business Administration Degree in Tourism and Hospitality, where students can opt to study basic French. As demonstrated in Table 18.2, none of the undergraduate and graduate programmes offers an option to major or minor in international management except the Master's Degree in International Relations.

Graduate programmes in international management

At graduate level, the University of Botswana offers many programmes in the nine faculties. The Master's Degree in Business Administration (MBA) was reviewed to establish the extent to which MBA programmes are internationalized. The faculty of business offers three types of

Source: University of Botswana, Undergraduate Academic Calendar, 2011/12 and Graduate Academic Calendar (2012/13).

MBAs comprising the general MBA, modular MBA and the executive MBA. Management courses across the three MBAs consist of courses in the areas of management, strategic management and organizational theory and organizational behaviour. Courses specific to international management comprise international marketing, international business finance, globalization and international business management and international marketing strategy (Graduate School Academic Calendar, 2012/13). There are very few courses considering globalization of organizations in terms management and carrying out business across borders.

Reviewing graduate programmes across the university faculties indicates that there are very few courses in international management education. For example, the Master's of Public Administration programme in the Department of Political and Administrative Studies has an international management education component in human resource management which covers international HR, diversity and management in international cultures. The curriculum for the Master's in Politics and International Relations has courses on international organizations, foreign policy analysis, international trade policy, and globalization politics and practices. Other departments in the faculty of social sciences offer international management education; for instance, the Department of Sociology has an international management course in globalization, culture and social change and global environmental practice, while the Law Department offers courses in international human rights and international criminal law. Unfortunately, there are no graduate degree programmes with a major or specializations in international management except international relations and politics in the Department of Political and Administrative Studies in the faculty of social sciences.

The business clinic/business incubator programme

The University has a business incubator programme which is housed in the faculty of business and teaches undergraduate students entrepreneurship and business skills. The business clinic engages students in entrepreneurship and business activities to enable them to gain experience and skills on how to start and operate a business as well as the financial and marketing aspects of a business. The business incubator programme also involves the private sector in promoting engagement of the sector through conferences, empowerment workshops and motivational speakers from financial institutions and industry. In an effort to further empower young entrepreneurs and enhance engagement with the community and industry, the faculty of business has established a satellite business clinic in collaboration with the faculty of engineering (University of Botswana, 2009/10). The business incubator programme aims to develop students into future investors and entrepreneurs by helping them apply classroom theory in practice. Undergraduate students will be able to practise what they have learnt in a classroom set-up in the subjects of marketing, business management, financial accounting and strategic management as well as organizational theory and behaviour. Undergraduate students engage in subjects related to international business finance, international trade finance, international marketing, international business and global business strategy. However, the business clinic does not specifically educate and empower young, hopeful entrepreneurs with such skills to undergraduate students in these fields. This is indeed a shortcoming as Botswana is promoting foreign direct investment through joint ventures with international partners. In the ideal situation, the University's faculty of business incubator programme should empower undergraduate students in international management education in these subjects to help better understand how to conduct business in the international environment and understand cultures across borders.

Diversity and international management education

The University has established an international education and partnerships office that helps to promote diversity through student exchange, visiting scholars programme, learning, teaching and research (University of Botswana, 2009/10). The University, through the International Office and the Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (student affairs), organizes student and academic exchange programmes with various international universities in the USA, Europe, Japan and Asia. As pointed out by Lutz and Culver (2010), a supportive campus environment and enriching educational experience are some of the benchmarks to measure learning outcomes. The exchange programme has transformed the culture of the university, student community, student lives, as well as the culture of learning and teaching delivery. The University has also, through the Office of the Vice Chancellor and the International Office, organized cultural events where students from countries in the SADC region, for example, Angola, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa and Swaziland, and international universities from as far as the USA, Japan and Europe, participate and share their culture in terms of music, dance, food and clothing. This event has become very popular in the capital city, where visitors from outside campus come to witness multicultural displays and diverse entertainment. The University population consists of international students and students living with disabilities. The University provides support services to these students through the International Office and the Disability Support Services Department (University of Botswana, 2009/10). The Disability Support Department coordinates activities and programmes for disabled students including support services such as academic leaner support services in such areas as Braille scribes, enlarged text format, provision of readers and note takers, mentorship and IT support (University of Botswana, 2009/10). In addition, students living with disabilities are assisted with separate examination rooms, desk-top magnifiers, psychological support, transport, and liaison with faculties and course instructors.

Review of international management education in two institutes of higher learning indicated that one of the institutions has a major in international management while the other has modules and courses in international management. For instance, the Botswana Accountancy College has some courses and modules in international management and has partnered the University of Derby and Institute of Chartered Accounts in the United Kingdom. Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, a subsidiary of the Limkokwing in Malaysia, has a Bachelor's Degree in International Business. The programme covers a wide range of courses in international management, as shown in Table 18.3. The course content is a very good development as students learn a variety of courses on how to management international organizations. It is worth noting that these partnerships are a positive development. Limkokwing has built a campus in Gaborone, Botswana and invested in terms of ICT, campus facility and infrastructural developments. However, some do

Sources: Botswana Accountancy College; Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, Gaborone.

not necessarily result in foreign direct investment (FDI) by international partners in the education sector except to utilize infrastructural facilities already developed by local/national institutions of higher learning. There are also issues of some national institutions claiming to be in partnership with or affiliated to reputable international colleges and universities when they are not.

Table 18.4 below is a sample of undergraduate and post-graduate degree programmes offered by the University of Cape Town in South Africa. The University of Cape Town was selected because it is one of the best universities in the southern African region and the African continent in terms of ranking and reputation. These programmes were reviewed in order to identify courses in international management education and to find out the extent to which the University of Cape Town offers students the opportunity to specialize and major in international management. The quick review revealed that there are courses in international management as evident in Table 18.4. However, the review shows no evidence of specializations or majors in international management. This is similar to the undergraduate programmes at the University of Botswana, as shown in Table 18.2.

Source: University of Cape Town, Graduate School of Business, Undergraduate and Graduate Academic Calendar (2012).

The above assessment indicates that though the University of Botswana undergraduate and graduate programmes have subjects in international management education, students do not have options to major or specialize in international management except in one department. Graduate students in the Department of Political and Administrative Studies in the faculty of social sciences have an option to pursue a degree in politics and international relations. The faculty of business and other faculties do not have such an option for students to major or specialize in international management. This may be partly explained by the limited qualifications and specialization of academic staff in the discipline of international management education. For example, a review of faculty members in the Department of Political and Administrative Studies shows that staff members have a specialization in international politics and relations (post-graduate qualification, PhD). This might apply to other faculties where courses/subjects in international management education are offered, for example, the faculty of business and social sciences in the department of business, law, economics and sociology where the bulk of courses in international management education is offered.

At the national/country level, international management education is filtered in higher education through partnerships established with international colleges and universities. As mentioned earlier, partnerships with these universities has resulted in national institutions reviewing their programmes and introducing new programmes for accreditation purposes to appeal to students. Modules and courses in international management education were introduced through, for instance, more business, engineering and ICT oriented degrees, executive MBA, MScs and other business-related courses and programmes with partnerships from colleges and universities in the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Australia. National institutions of higher learning had to recruit faculty members from outside the country, bringing with them qualifications, research, publications, networks and experience in international management education. There is evidence that Limkokwing University of Creative Technology offers an undergraduate degree in international business which covers a wide range of courses and this is a good indication of incorporating international management education in the curriculum. The Botswana Accountancy College has international management modules and exposes students to international management education through international partnerships with universities and accounting and finance institutions in England and Wales.

The review of international management programmes at the University of Cape Town revealed a similar pattern of having diverse courses and modules but no specializations or majors in international management. The faculty in the Graduate School of Business has specializations in international management, for example, a PhD in international management. Faculty members at Cape Town come from different countries, therefore contributing to imparting knowledge and experience through teaching, research and publications in the field of international management. This is particularly true for MBA and Master's degree programmes in the Graduate School of Business (Table 18.2) where students are exposed to a lot of modules and courses in international management.

Conclusion

This chapter has attempted to analyse international management education in the context of Botswana and with a comparative case example from South Africa. One of the major issues emerging from this analysis is that there are limited options for students in Bostwana to opt for programmes that specialize or major in international management. The University of Botswana and Limkokwing University of Creative Technology offer only two degree programmes that allow students to major in international management. These are at graduate level for the University of Botswana and undergraduate level for Limkokwing. A review of programmes in the University of Cape Town revealed a variety of courses and modules in international management but no reflection of specializations or majors in international management. There are a variety of courses and modules in international management, particularly in the faculty of business, at undergraduate and graduate levels. Due to the increased speed in globalization and greater demand for African organizations to conduct business in an international environment, institutions of higher learning in Botswana, South Africa and Africa in general need to increase programmes and courses in international management in order to make their universities competitive and attractive to local and international students. Establishing partnerships should also be accompanied by international partners contributing to foreign direct investment in host countries in the areas ofinfrastructural and faculty development. Effective exchange of research, publications, culture, ideas and experience in international management will promote and produce faculty and students who can adapt to any environment in the global labour market. Building capacity and experience of faculty members through qualifications in international management and enhancing exchange and participation in international education programmes would add value to the type and employability of graduates which the universities produce. Increasing exchange programmes, degrees, research and publications in international management would enable graduates from the universities to work competently in international organizations within and outside their respective countries.

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