Leads and Lags

Sometimes you don't want to start a task as soon as its predecessor finishes—sometimes you want to wait. In scheduling terminology this is called a lag. For example, using the tasks for the foundation work package, after you pour the concrete (Task 1.2.1.3.6), you will have a lag of 10 days before you remove the forms (Task 1.2.1.6.7). A lag is indicated with a plus sign (+). Thus, the relationship between these two tasks is shown as FS + 10d, where “d” indicates days.

If you want to accelerate the time between two tasks, you use a lead. For example, if you have an FS relationship between gathering requirements and designing, you could apply a lead to accelerate the design. This is represented as FS − 2w, where FS is the finish‐to‐start relationship, the lead is shown as a minus sign, and 2w signifies two weeks.

Table 7‐2 shows some of the abbreviations used in scheduling.

Creating a Network Diagram

A network diagram is a visual depiction of your schedule from beginning to end. It shows the tasks as boxes (also called nodes), linked by arrows. Once you are comfortable with the flow, or the diagram starts to get too big, you can switch from sticky notes to entering the information into scheduling software. Figure 7‐2 shows the same information from Figure 7-1, but it is entered into software, and it shows the 10‐day lag.

Resource Breakdown Structure

A resource breakdown structure can show the number of people you need in each role. The resource breakdown structure in Figure 7‐3 shows an example for the renovation projects for the Dionysus Winery.

This breakdown chart is like an org chart or a work breakdown structure, but it focuses on project resources. If you have a lot of physical resources, such as equipment, material, and supplies, you can either integrate those categories or do a separate breakdown structure for physical resources.

Resource Histograms

You can also show resource needs with a resource histogram. Figure 7‐4 shows a resource histogram with the same information as the resource breakdown structure in Figure 7-3.

You can create a resource histogram by creating a table like Table 7‐3 in a spreadsheet.

Then you simply highlight the data and then insert a column chart.

Another great use of a resource histogram is to show the number of resources you will need by skill level, by month, or in each location. Figure 7‐5 shows a resource histogram with resource needs by month.

This resource histogram shows a stacked bar chart rather than a column chart. There is no single correct way to chart your resource needs—use whichever method works best for you.

Role Descriptions

Many of the misunderstandings that occur on projects are a result of not having a clear understanding of the roles, competencies, responsibilities, and authority associated with each role. Having a document that clearly identifies this information can help minimize these types of misunderstandings. For example, you might record information like this:

Responsibility Assignment Matrix

A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) is a matrix chart that shows the type of participation for each role (or team member) and each work package. Like the role descriptions, this chart provides clarity around expectations for each team member and reduces the likelihood of misunderstandings.

A common version of a responsibility assignment matrix is called a RACI chart because it documents who is responsible, accountable, consulted, and informed.

• The responsible person is the person doing the actual work. This may or may not be the same as the accountable person.
• The accountable person is the one answerable for a deliverable.
• Someone who is consulted may be a person who has done this type of work before, a stakeholder with an interest in the outcome, the customer, or even a consultant.
• The person who is informed needs to know the status of the deliverable. They may have a dependent deliverable, or it may be the project manager or another interested stakeholder.

Table 7‐4 shows a portion of a RACI chart using work packages and roles.

With a RACI chart it is important to note that each deliverable must have one and only one accountable person since there should only be one person who is answerable for the status and success of a deliverable.

A RACI chart is a very common version of a RAM, but it is certainly not the only one. It can be useful to include an “S” for sign‐off as well. If a sign‐off function was being used in the RAM above, the project manager might sign off on the requirements the production manager submitted and the drawings the architect submitted.

Selecting Team Members

You may not have the luxury of choosing your team members. If you do have input into selecting team members, there are several variables to consider. Even if you don't get to choose who is on your team, keep these variables in mind so you can optimize team performance.

• Skill level and experience: A team member with a lot of experience and a high degree of skill will be able to complete the work in less time, with less rework, and with a higher degree of quality than someone with less experience. However, they often have a higher hourly pay rate.
• Availability: Team members who can dedicate themselves to working on the project full time will be more productive than those who can only work on it part time. The more projects a person is working on at the same time, the less productive they are on any one project.
• Cost: A project that uses in‐house resources may not have to worry about the cost of team members, but if you are using contractors, you will want to consider the hourly or daily rate of team members.
• Attitude: Attitude can affect your project in a few ways. For example, a team member who really wants to work on the project may be a better fit for the team than someone with more experience who isn't excited about your project. Another aspect of attitude has to do with a person's general outlook. A person with a positive outlook is often a better team member than someone who is overly critical, combative, or negative.
• Flexible skill set: In Chapter 3 we talked about team members who are generalizing specialists, also known as T‐shaped people. Team members with a deep understanding of a specific skill and a broad understanding of many complementary skills can be a valuable asset to the team. They can support other team members if they fall behind and present ideas from a holistic perspective rather than from a narrow focus.
• Geography: If you have a project that requires the team to meet in person, geography can be a significant factor in assigning team members. However, if you have a partially or fully virtual team, you may be able to find team members with great skills and better rates than local talent. Keep in mind when establishing a virtual team, spending extra time on communications is critical. You want people to feel connected even though they don't get to see each other. In addition, when you can't read someone's body language, you miss some good communication cues, so establish as many communication channels as necessary to reduce the opportunities for misunderstandings is important.