CHAPTER 3
Business Ethics Education in Brazil: Pedagogical Solutions for Combating Corruption in Brazil
Abstract
This chapter offers a discussion of the role of ethics education in management as a mechanism for combating corruption in Brazil. We argue that ethics education is important for combating endemic corruption. In order to apply this insight to Brazil in such a way to promote actionable responses by educators, we begin by an overview of the Brazilian context. Following much literature, we argue that the historical development of Brazil has led to a culture of administrative personalism, with the co-occurrence of highly formalized systems of administrative bureaucracy and informal personal ties, a combination that allows corrupt practices to spread easily. We then turn to the role of higher education in Brazil, noting the challenges faced in this sector, as well as the opportunities posed by recent rapid growth. Finally, we turn to concrete pedagogical practices that can contribute to combating corruption in the classroom, emphasizing the role of participation and dialogue, rather than recipes and codes.
Introduction
International attention on corruption, from scholars and international agencies, has been increasing in recent years.1 Defined as “the misuse of public office, trust or power for private gain,”2 corruption may be associated with the lack of optimal use of national resources and equal distribution among populations and thus creates social disparity and inequity, resulting in negative psychological and social consequences.3 The importance of addressing corruption is partly to understand its causes in order to derive practical and equitable solutions to combat corruption.
Educational institutions and programs can be an important vehicle for reducing corruption through ethics education. Scholars recently have realized that “ethics education matters.”4 Some empirical research has suggested that ethics education can play a significant role in affecting ethical decision making5 and can enable learners increase their “ethical awareness and moral reasoning.” Emphasizing ethics in the education of potential future business leaders will imbue them with the essential foundations to ethically deal with complex managerial situations, dilemmas, or questionable situations.
Although the value of ethics education has been recognized, there has been little discussion of how to tailor ethics education to diverse global contexts, particularly regarding the issue of corruption.6 In an era of globalized commerce, where managers will have to work across different cultural and ethical value systems, such discussions are overdue. Because corruption arises out of particular social, political, and cultural contexts, education toward combating corruption must take such contexts into account. Even countries at relatively similar levels of economic development may have different notions and perceptions of what constitutes corruptions, and what is appropriate in business ethics education. The five BRICS economies (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa), for example, have relatively different notions of ethics education.7 In order to best design programs that speak to the problems and practices of the wider society, it is therefore necessary to place ethics education in its cultural context.
The current chapter addresses the link between higher education and corruption in Brazil. It highlights some of the advantages of introducing ethics into higher education in one of the world’s largest emerging economies. We first move from broader perspectives on Brazilian culture to the more specific context of ethics education in Brazil. We pay special attention to the concept of jeitinho,8’9 a key cultural notion with regards to corruption issues in Brazil. Then, we briefly describe higher education in Brazil, providing a general overview of this sector. Based on this overview, we provide insights and recommendations regarding teaching ethics in Brazil, along with some pedagogical issues relevant to the Brazilian context.
Overview of Brazilian Context
Brazil is the world’s sixth largest economy and has been historically marked by vast economical inequalities, with wealth “concentrated in the hands of a small portion of the population.”10 Furthermore, Brazil has been “known as a place of vast potential,”11 possessing valuable resources, such as freshwater, tropical forests, fertile land, and huge mineral and hydrocarbon wealth. However, despite being a wealthy land, and despite a growing middle class in recent years, Brazil is still a country of large economic and social disparities. One of the main reasons often noted is the “inadequate education system,”12 which calls for renewed attention to education in such a context, and precisely education involving the important social issues faced by Brazil. Teaching ethics in Brazil can be considered a step in reducing the huge disparity amongst the population and can be part of the enabling environment for sustainable economic development, and very important for developing business principles that emphasize human and social well-being.
As mentioned earlier, Brazil is a country of inequalities. This can be explained by various factors, for example, long period of colonialism.13 The postcolonial period has been marked by periods of military intervention, foreign dependency and debt, and a history of institutional corruption.14 Before, during, and after colonial periods, the economic elite was central in creating the political, social, and economic hierarchy,15 allowing personalist ties between powerful actors to become central to the organization of society.
The costs of social exclusion, however, have prevented Brazil from realizing its economic potential in the long run. Human capital, as a core engine of advancing political and social change, suffered due to longstanding exclusions from quality education. Perhaps as a result, Brazil has long adopted “a debt-driven developmental model, that heavily relies on loans from international bodies.”16 The debt model gave Brazil the fiscal basis to accelerate its economical growth and led to the “Brazilian miracle.”17 However, this economic model further concentrated income in the hands of the upper class, while it enforced “regressive wage policies and repressive measures for the underclass.”18
Despite the high concentration of power and resources in Brazil, the democratic opening of Brazil over the last 25 years has led to increased awareness of the need to include larger segment of the population into economic and social activity. This growing social consciousness makes Brazil a good candidate for educational innovations in teaching ethics and social responsibility. Such initiatives, linked to national education, could replace the current culture of compliance that affect primarily larger, transnational institutions based or operating in Brazil. As Griesse (2007, p. 20) puts it, “only large transnational firms are pressured by the international marketplace and international organizations to comply.”
Related to this opening, recent political openings have allowed for the creation of a third sector in Brazil, which is corporate social responsibility (CSR). This is promising especially since this sector has evolved as a response to the disparity that distinguishes Brazil.19 CSR in the Brazilian context is meant to install citizenship to “allow full participation of all citizens in national space, and strengthen the collective decision making process.”20 Following the wave of interest in CSR, corporations in Brazil have started to humanize their business activities through integrating ethics in their business activities and introducing a code of conduct in their operations, as well as adopting training strategies to build their employees’ capacities to ethically deal with workplace situations.21
The challenge of such initiatives in business education is to imbue a sense of anti-corruption and social conscience into Brazilian business culture. As the main arms of this emerging economy, business organizations function as vehicles of “promoting change.”22 Some studies of Brazilian business ethics have identified a culture based on maintaining harmony and coherence among group members, with loyalty to the group leader.23 While a focus on social harmony may be consistent with anti-corruption initiatives, in cultures where loyalty to leaders is high, it stands to reason that the ethical practices and values of leaders are of particular importance.
The above point implies that the institutional and economic history of Brazil does not only make itself felt in resulting structural inequalities, but also in cultural and value systems that reinforce hierarchical relationships, loyalty, and personalism.24 Such cultural aspects have developed from a system of patronage based around fixed hierarchies in a colonial, then a land-owning economy.25 However, transplanted into a modern political and economic scenario, they may be precursors to institutional corruption and understanding how such cultural practices work may be key to understanding business in Brazil.26
For example, the notion of jeitinho (little way) has been central to understanding hierarchical, including corrupt, relations in Brazilian society.27–29 Jeitinho has been defined as “an informal problem-solving strategy, social mechanism that entails bending or breaking the rules in order to deal with difficult or forbidding situations. It is a useful strategy to get things done in work organizations.”30 It involves interpersonal favors or rule-bending in order to avoid complex protocols that have proliferated in highly bureaucratized contexts. While such rule bending have the effect of smoothing social relations and creating social harmony in the short run, it leads to widespread economic inefficiencies and difficulties in the long run, notwithstanding the perpetuation of social inequities.31
Jeitinho and the tendency toward personalism, as a “hermeneutic key” of Brazilian society,32 give Brazilians a sense of cultural identity, and also include friendly and gentle behaviors that would not always be considered clearly unethical.33 Thus, it is an important part of culture, and as a driver of corruption and unethical behaviors, such phenomena are not clearly resolved through implementing codes of conduct or top-down enforcement of rules. Rather it requires the kind of sustained dialogue around ethical dilemmas that takes place in ethics classrooms, and thus are an issue for discussion, rather than legislation.
Having thus given a brief overview of the historical and cultural issues involved in corruption in Brazil, that indicates social disparity, institutionalized informal relations, we may now turn to the area of education, to see how classroom treatments of these topics can be conceptualized, and how solutions to corruption can be imagined by educators.
Overview of Education and Social Issues in Brazil
We argue that higher education is a potential driver of change in Brazil. We begin by discussing the distinguishing characteristics of this sector, enabling us to derive some insights regarding teaching ethics in Brazil, in terms of content and pedagogy. By providing such overview we will be in a better position to propose pedagogical recommendations and insights as well as learning activities that would be effective enough to maximize and achieve the desired results.
Higher education, from a sociological perspective, can be considered as an “incubator for the development of competent social actors, and temples for legitimating official knowledge.”34 Higher education thus grants the legitimacy of certain domains of knowledge. As such, it is one of the main pillars of state building and for the formation of an accepted body of administrative knowledge, practice, and values35 (p. 15). Additionally, higher education acts as a “hub” by which key social actors are connected with each other, as well as with the institutional structures of society.36 Higher education serves as a mechanism that can produce the human capital required for social and economic stability. Education in Brazil can significantly influence the effectiveness of political participation, and as some have argued, growth in educational attainment can pose a challenge for corruption practices by elites.37
Brazil has been highlighted for the key role that education can play in development,38 and as has been stated in many studies higher education in Brazil has the highest return on education among the 17 Latin American countries, demonstrating the potential for education to improve social conditions in Brazil. As such, managing the emerging educational structures of Brazilian higher education is especially pressing.
Education in Brazil is composed of public and private, profit-making and nonprofit institutions, as well as diverse community institutions. The latter encourage community participation and philanthropic institutions that require a separate eligibility, the “certificate of social assistance from the national council for social assistance.”39 New institutions and courses are regulated by the national council of education (CNE), first established in Brazil in 1995.40 This administrative entity can be possibly seen as an enabling institution to ease the promotion of new courses in teaching ethics without rigid complications or going through dealing with many administrative channels.
The diversity of forms of higher education in Brazil, between autonomous universities, private foundations, and less regulated educational centers,41 pose both challenge and an opportunity for designers of curricula, since the academic background, interests, and need of potential students might change quite markedly across different forms of institutions. Popular areas of study across institutional forms, however, include social science, business and law, humanities, which belong to the so-called soft science.42 This is another avenue that teaching ethics would be effectively incorporated into, since the vast majority of entrants enroll in such fields, then the learning outcomes of these courses would be intensified and diversified largely.
A key issue in Brazilian higher education systems is quality, with cause for concern at various levels. Pisa, the international evaluation, highlighted the poor quality of higher education in Brazil, giving Brazil one of the lowest positions in terms of student achievement.43 Such results may be a result of the poor quality of basic education, which perhaps consequently led to high rates of dropouts and repetition. Quality is also most likely to intersect with the unequal educational opportunities, especially for those who live in poor areas and accordingly educational opportunity on the national level is deeply undemocratic.
Focusing on the student populations, higher education enrollments are relatively low, at 17%, with students concentrated at the upper socio-economic levels. Seventy-one percent of students come from the top 20% of household incomes, with a low representation of Afro-Brazilian students, and a concentration in the wealthier South and South-Eastern.44
Notwithstanding all these problems that distinguishes education in Brazil in general, some progress and improvement has taken place, such as recruiting better qualified teachers or even upgrading their qualifications and competences. Nationally, specific curriculum parameters have been put in place to improve the quality of higher education. Efforts to improve education in Brazil have been also steered toward improving and changing the content of curriculum especially for basic education, with a special focus on the importance of developing competences and skills in problem solving and logical thinking. Based on these changes in curriculum content, the overall educational system in Brazil started to change from memorization-based systems to reasoning, and building knowledge and competences and behaviors rather than quantity of information.45 “Learning to learn and to think”46 has also been one of the slogans for improving education. This has more effective implications, especially when it comes to relating knowledge to real-life experience, giving meaning to what has been learned, or interpreting these real daily examples through knowledge and concepts students acquire.
Higher education in Brazil is based on three main functions/forms: teaching, research, and extension. The latter form of education, extension courses, refers to the continued education of working populations and is particularly extensive in Brazil.47 The core essence of these courses is that they have a social character but they can be offered in the higher education institutions. These courses are not academic degrees but can potentially have a positive impact.48 This allows a convergence of theory and practice that is important in ethical decisions.
The extension courses can be used as the major vehicles to teach business ethics in higher education institutions. These courses can be a very active forum for reflecting on the daily lives of practitioners through bringing real-life examples, and combining such examples with the conceptual and theoretical understanding of course content. Thus, extension courses can enhance and institutionalize continuing education in Brazil, which is once again necessary for such an emerging economy.
One of the main trends with potential to improve education in Brazil is the growth of private institutions of higher education. This growth has been based on the fact that private providers of educational services increase relatively low enrollments and create the potential to enhance positive competition among education institutions.49 Unfortunately, despite World Bank predictions that increases in private education would facilitate the inclusion of socially disadvantaged groups, most families, with average incomes around $600 per month, cannot afford tuitions and thus remain excluded from the majority of the sector.50 Compounding this problem, private institutions are concentrated mainly in the richer South and South-East regions. On the other hand, the decentralization of education from the federal public university system could potentially create the heterogeneity in educational offerings that drive innovations. It remains to be seen whether such adoptions can adopt a socially and environmentally responsible approach while being purely driven by a market model.51
The situation presented so far about higher education in Brazil suggests that the education system in Brazil has critical implications in excluding a very large majority of the population from educational opportunities, and deprives them of this right, and therefore forces them in a way to resort to other possible ways to survive and earn their living regardless of it being ethical or not. One possible way out is the inclusion of these groups, by including them in educational opportunities, or at least include them in education partly through introducing ad hoc courses, or through the extension courses that are already in the structure of higher education in Brazil, so as to raise the ethical awareness of this group and to retain a social awareness necessary to understand the implications of corruption. This may be one possible precautionary measure to reduce corruption in Brazil.
The majority of this education is for-profit, private education, and nonresearch-oriented. Most people who enter these schools take it as a way to further their careers. On the other hand, public education is mainly based on a classical European view of education, focusing on theoretical rigor, academic publication, and autonomy from outside pressures. This view is more humanistic and research-oriented, and internally recognized as having generally higher academic legitimacy as compared to the private sector.52 We argue, in the next section, that a sharp division between “academic” and “professional” education is not a positive trend for anti-corruption education; rather, such divisions tend to isolate ethical theory from practice, and at the same time, lead to theory that does not understand the needs and demands made for managers.
To summarize, higher education in Brazil takes varied forms, and is in a recent and relatively fundamental period of change. Brazil’s emerging middle class, as it encounters the new educational forms springing around it, will be affected by the kinds of alternative curricula and visions of management that are promulgated in these centers of learning. In a very real sense, therefore, the new forms of higher education, are often based on extension courses, night courses, and other alternative formats, that can serve as training grounds upon which a new generation of Brazilian managers will develop knowledge required for ethical management. As such, they provide a key front on which the struggle against corruption must be carried out, and socially conscious values can be promoted. In the next section, we will discuss practical ideas for engaging in this educational initiative.
Business Ethics Education: Pedagogical Tools for Addressing Corruption
Although business ethics education has tended to underplay issues of systemic corruption and society-wide ills,53 it is impossible to discuss ethics in Brazil only at the level of individual behaviors. While it is true that corruption occurs by people’s individual choices, in specific situations, and individuals must ultimately be held responsible for their actions, these actions must also be understood in the context of a society that has maintained social disparities, personalism, and corrupt practices for centuries. In such a situation, individual acts of corruption may not take on the illegitimacy that is suggested by looking at codes of ethics; rather they may exist in an informal but “permissible” way, in order to navigate the daily lives of actors.
Among the key goals of promoting ethical teaching in Brazil is to provide a platform by which students can engage with prevailing social disparities, eventually promoting a national dialogue around how to develop an equitable way. Because economic power in Brazil has circulated among relatively closed minority segments of the population, consciousness rising at this level is necessary for such dialogue to occur. As the current government of Brazil has emphasized, addressing and combating corruption is a major goal for social policy.54 As the government has itself been accused of corrupt practices such as payoffs and support buying, it suggests that change needs to occur at the deeper level of educational and cultural transformation for such gains to be realized.
Having a reasonable background in ethics should be considered a key prerequisite in higher education curricula across the diverse types of programs. Below we suggest some pedagogical tools that could help the design of ethics pedagogy in the Brazilian context.
For example, promoting ethical awareness, as recognition of the moral nature of a situation, allows students to recognize that certain situations constitute an ethical dilemma with conflicting ethical standards. In situations where “getting the job done” contradicts organizational codes or ethical principles, the use of such dilemmas could allow students to openly share their feelings about rule-bending and discuss possible alternatives with their peers. Rather than simply giving recipes for correct action, such discussion could develop moral reasoning, defined as the ability to analyze and evaluate certain actions taking into account ethical principles.55
Such discussions could be promoted via critical incident methods,56 which bring real-life scenarios to the classes that constitute an effective pedagogical approach in teaching corruption related issues. These real-life scenarios would provide very good platforms to blend real life with the concepts and theories. Referring to critical incidents also enables students to understand such incidents, analyze them, and perhaps suggest ways to deal with some of these issues or ethical dilemmas that confront the real world. Class discussions could also be led by practitioners who might attend courses in business ethics especially in the case of extension courses tailored to specific business groups.
The extensive involvement of practitioners in higher education in Brazil, a function both of the historical lack of doctoral programs and the rapid increase in higher education programs provides an opportunity to link theory and practice, and emphasize real-world situations in the classroom. The practitioners’ involvement can promote debate and discussion amongst the students, practitioners, and the academic staff and it is likely to be closer to the kinds of real-world situations that students can expect to encounter in the labor market.
On the other hand, having business ethics courses taught largely by business practitioners also poses challenges. While these actors may be more in tune with the exigencies of the market, they may not have the critical distance from business necessary to reflectively critique, question, and challenge current “business as usual” assumptions, and thus risk perpetuating status quo corrupt practices. It is thus imperative for practitioners, academics, and students to interact and participate in ethical discussions in the classroom. Such discussions become moments for true dialogue, rather than simply training in current corporate practices.
Such interaction might take the form of team-taught classes between academically qualified and professionally qualified instructors, enabling students to encounter different points of view in the classroom. The team teaching format would be useful on several fronts. First, it would “decenter” the authority of the professor from a single individual, promoting participation in a more collaborative environment. Second, it would, on the one hand, force the academically qualified professors to engage with real-world issues while forcing the professionally qualified faculty to step back and reflect on the conceptual bases of business action. Third, it would allow students to see that many of the situations that they encounter at work are not straightforward in meaning, and engage a search process in which they are forced to consider different points of view on a topic.
The extensive use of ethical business cases would be a key element in an anti-corruption pedagogy within management education. Cases put students within an experiential setting where they can in classrooms experience certain ethical dilemmas or situations to see what they can do accordingly.
Pedagogically, ethical discussions should involve “experimental” simulations, such as role reversals, where instructors surprise the participants in reversing roles on the spot, asking students to assume that such incidents they themselves encountered, will they handle or perceive it in the same way they suggested before. This way the instructors can verify immediately whether the students were candid in their responses about the incidents reflecting upon their experience in different roles and social positions.
Because of the ethical issues surrounding personalism in Brazil, ethics instructors could design cases to challenge the students/participants on how will they react in an ethical dilemma if a friend is involved, or an acquaintance or a relative. The point of such cases would be for the students to internalize potential situations, where the students would be directly asked how they will handle a situation with their friends or relatives. The cases should be carefully designed to refer to how they relate or interpret their reactions to such dilemmas to the values of friendship, loyalty, professionalism, kindness, and favor.
Similarly, extreme scenarios are of particular use, where students are exposed to two extreme ethical scenarios. Such situations could involve issue of public or private safety, or situations that risk the firm’s survival, or seriously impact social well-being. Such cases would force the students to look into their foundational values, and decide whether expediency is worth compromising core normative beliefs.
Case discussions surrounding the jeitinho might look critically both at the behaviours that subvert organizational rule structures and also at those rule structures themselves. In a first phase, the class might take an “actor’s view” perspective on an organizational situation. For example, burdened by an arcane and complex tax system, organizational managers might have the opportunity to avert taxes by recategorizing expenses, hiding key information, or paying off local officials. These activities could be discussed both as responses that arise from the understandable difficulties of managing a difficult system, and also as socially destructive behaviors that, in the long run, erode the power of the state to administer its economy. The ability to see both sides of such behaviours, while not providing easy answers, could better equip students to face the situations that they are likely to encounter as managers.
Conversely, the same kind of exercise could be reframed from the “social engineer’s point of view.” That is, students could take the role of a strategist designing organizational policies, or a government official drafting legislative plans. From this point of view, the focus would be on how to create systems that allow corruption to be avoided. The discussion could go in several directions. First, students and teachers could debate ways in which administrative structures could be streamlined to avoid the bureaucratic bottlenecks that often lead to bypassing the system. Second, they could discuss the design of auditing and monitoring systems that would disincentivize corrupt behavior, and, importantly, incentivize correct behavior. Such “institutional design” perspectives would allow students and professionals to step back from the day-to-day exigencies of their professional lives to look at the big picture of how organizational behaviors both arise from and affect wider institutional structures.
The key take away point from each of these suggestions is that a traditional lecture mode of pedagogy may be inappropriate to the specific topic of anti-corruption in management classrooms, because the content of such a course is likely to challenge fundamental cultural practices that occur in the economy. Such modes of teaching, by focusing attention on a single authority, and forcing student to learn what that authority wants in order to pass an exam, may paradoxically reinforce the same kinds of topdown and leader-focused dynamic, which, we argued above, is associated with widespread corruption. Rather, pedagogy can model forms of relationality that stress mutual respect, participation, and creative problem solving, thus creating an experiential basis for democratic, egalitarian interactions in the public sphere. Beyond course content per se, modeling such forms of social interaction might in itself be a step against corrupt and antisocial business practice.
Conclusion
Brazil, as musician Tom Jobim pointed out, “is not for beginners.” As such, teaching management in a way that is sensitive to local contexts is essential to make ethics education meaningful for Brazilian audiences. Dealing with local complexities can be both a challenge and an opportunity for educators. This chapter has provided insights, tools, and ideas for pedagogy against corruption.
Curricula should be sensitive to context, especially in the case of teaching ethics. We have argued that teaching ethics is one of the effective means to fight corruption. However, education programs must be grounded on the causes of corruption in Brazil. Understanding those causes allows us to create more pedagogically effective tools.
Brazil emerged out of particular political, social, and cultural conditions that have led to problems with corruption. Despite its great potential, the political, social, and economic hierarchy and a history of institutionalized corruption, beginning from the colonial period, have hindered Brazil’s development.
The institutionalized corruption described above not only exists at the political level through maintaining power, authority, and wealth in the hands of elites, but also extends to include social values and practices. The notion of jeitinho, for example, reflects the personal ties that prevail in many Brazilian administrative settings.
A lack of quality education characterizes the Brazilian educational system. As such, student achievement in Brazil has been reported by Pisa as among the lowest positions worldwide. The problems in the education system start from basic education and trickle upward in the higher education, resulting in, among other problems, very low enrolment of students.
In sum, corruption has been historically ingrained in Brazilian society at many levels, leading to myriad social difficulties. Despite its historical difficulties, however, we have argued that many aspects of higher education in Brazil show cause for optimism in terms of its ability to resolve corruption, despite deeply engrained difficulties.
First, the autonomy enjoyed by the main educational institutions is one of the most attractive features that give such institutions the flexibility to introduce new courses such as business ethics. An important feature of education system in Brazil is that it is mainly based on teaching, research, and extension. The latter is the most suitable and malleable form for widespread change. This is because it can act as a hub to reach out various actors who can play main roles to incrementally combat corruption. Extension courses are also of importance to include the population that has been deprived of education opportunities for different reasons.
Based on the features attributed to the Brazilian context in general and educational system in particular, we provided few pedagogical insights that we argued can reap huge benefits in fighting corruption systematically and incrementally.
The critical incident method is a key tool in this regard. It is based on bringing to classrooms real-life scenarios, where learners simulate, interact, exchange, and reflect on their own experiences, merging practice and theory to enhance learning outcomes. As part of this method, practitioners can also be invited in some sessions to talk about their experiences, creating a solid debate platform amongst learners. Similarly, some experimental simulations, role reversals should enable learners to closely assess their capabilities and reactions in ethical reasoning. Because of the widespread nature of corruption historically, there are many cases that can be brought to classroom for discussion that can further and strengthen the conceptual and theoretical concepts.
In short, Brazil’s emergence on the world stage can best be supported by an educational strategy that attempts to combat corruption while taking local history into account. The present time is a ripe moment for change, in a country that is rapidly changing in many ways.
Key Terms and Definitions
Corruption: The use of social or public position or authority for private or illegitimate ends.
Higher education: Education above the secondary or high school level.
Study Questions
1.What are the ways in which corruption is evident in the Brazilian context?
2.What is the role of higher education in combating corruption?
3.What classroom techniques can be used to make this role effective?
Additional Reading
Barbosa, L. (1995). The Brazilian jeitinho: An exercise in national identity. In David Hess and Roberto DaMatta (Eds.), The Brazilian puzzle: Culture on the borderlands of the western world, pp. 35–48. New York: Columbia University Press.
Brown, E., & Cloke, J. (2011). Critical perspectives on corruption: an overview. Critical perspectives on International Business, 7(2), 116–124.
Vizeu, F. (2011). Rural Heritage of early Brazilian Industrialists?: Its impact on managerial orientation. Brazilian Adminstration Review, 8(1), 68–85.