Appendix 1

Grammar, Usage, and Style

“Linguistic study no longer lays down rules for correct grammar, but studies the rules that are actually adhered to by particular cultural groups. The aim is not to give laws for human utterance, but to understand the utterances that actually occur.”

—Graham Hough

IntroductIon

Lynne Truss has based the title of her popular book Eats, Shoots & Leaves on a joke about poor punctuation¹:

 

A panda enters a café, eats a sandwich, and starts shooting at the people in the café. When an amazed waiter blurts out a ‘Why?’ in the ensuing confusion, the panda throws a copy of a wildlife manual at him. And sure enough, he finds the following description against the word ‘Panda’ in the manual: ‘Panda: Large black-and-white bear-like mammal, native to China. Eats, shoots and leaves.’

 

This is a humourous account of how just one misplaced comma or, for that matter, any other minor punctuation error can completely change the meaning of a sentence. To write correctly, one doesn’t need to specialize in grammer. One does, however, need to learn some basic rules of grammar and English usage. In addition, an eye for stylistic issues like punctuation, capitalization, and references helps. The focus of this appendix is on three broad issues—grammar, English usage, and style. These are issues that are often ignored, but can make a significant difference to the quality of a written document.

grammar

According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, a comma is ‘the study of the rules of a language’s inflections or other means of showing the relation between words including its phonetic system’2. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English clarifies that ‘A dictionary lists the words, grammar states the rules’3.

You are already aware of the various parts of speech, such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. The following sections discuss how these parts of speech are used, beginning with the rule of concord or verb–subject agreement.

Rule of Concord or Agreement

In a sentence, the verb must agree in number and person with its subject. A verb, as explained later, is a word that expresses action or presents the state in which a thing or person is. A subject is that about which something is stated in the predicate. It is a mistaken notion that a subject is the ‘doer’ of the action. Action can be done upon the subject (e.g., he is killed). A sentence will be correct only when the subject and verb endings agree in number. A singular verb should be used with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject.

Singular and Plural Subjects

The subject of a sentence is either singular or plural, and this determines the verb’s ending. The ending of a verb is singular when it ends with s and plural when it has no s at the end. For example comes is a singular verb and come is a plural verb. It is correct to say, ‘She comes from Jaipur’ but incorrect to say, ‘They comes from Jaipur’.

 

 

Singular nouns, singular pronouns, and uncountable nouns (such as happiness, news, time, life, love) need singular verbs that end with s.

 

Ram plays.

She dances.

However, the following would be exceptions:

I pray.

You go.

Plural nouns and pronouns take plural verbs.

They play.

Girls dance.

You eat.

 

A good rule to remember is that a sentence cannot have two s endings, one with the verb and the other with the subject. Further, plural nouns have an s at the end, and they take plural verbs, which end without an s. Conversely, singular nouns are without an s at the end, and they take singular verbs, which have an s.

 

Bells ring.

The girl runs.

 

Note that the following phrases are not part of the subject. Therefore, they should not be considered when determining the number of the subject:

• along with
• accompanied by
• except
• including
• no less than
• together with
• with

Compound Subjects

Compound subjects are two singular subjects joined by the conjunction and; they require a plural verb.

 

The boy and girl are…

The story and music are…

 

When the words joined by and stand together as a single unit and mean one single thing, they take a singular verb. For instance, it is correct to say ‘The horse and carriage has come’.

Either/or Subjects

When multiple subjects are joined by either, neither, nor, or not only…but also, the verb agrees in number with the nearest subject.

 

If one of the subjects is plural, the verb should be plural. Hence, the plural subject may be placed closest to the verb to make it plural.

 

Either he or his friends have done it.

 

If both the subjects are singular, the verb will be singular.

 

Neither he nor his brother is coming.

Phrase and Clauses as Subjects

When a phrase or an entire clause is the subject, a singular verb is used. For instance:

 

In case the verb is a form of be and the noun placed after it is plural, the verb will be plural.

 

What he gave were letters.

(Here, what he gave = letters)

Collective Nouns as Subjects

When a collective noun (such as committee, class, team, group, family) is used in the sense of a single unit or as a whole, the verb used with it is singular.

 

Our class has won the match.

 

Sometimes, however, the collective noun refers to its members acting individually. In that case, a plural verb should be used.

 

The committee are divided in their opinion.

 

Note that even the (possessive) pronoun used here is plural (their), not singular (its).

Plural Words That End in S

Words such as news, economics, mathematics, and lives are considered single units and need a singular verb.

 

The news says…

Physics is…

Subjects That End in S

The list below includes words that refer to only one thing, but take a plural verb.

 

Eyeglasses are…

Clippers trim…

Jeans are…

Riches are…

Shears cut…

Thanks are due to…

Tweezers pull…

Scissors cut…

Amounts as Subjects

When the subject mentions an amount, the verb used is singular.

 

Anything more than 100 km is too high a speed.

Six bushels is…

Four hundred rupees is…

Company Names, Titles, and Terms as Subjects

Name of companies, titles of books, and words used as terms take singular verbs.

 

Hindustan Motors is changing its business model.

The New Realities is the latest book by Drucker.

Indefinite Words as Subjects

When words such as each, every, and any are used as subjects or placed before the subject in the singular sense, they require a singular verb.

 

Note that when none, some, most, or all are used as the subject, they take a singular or plural verb according to their meaning. For example, consider the following uses of all and some.

 

 

Some of the lecture is not clear. (In this case, the word some indicates a part of the lecture. It is therefore a single unit and needs a singular verb.)

 

Some of the guests are yet to come. (Some here refers to many guests and is therefore used in the plural sense. It takes a plural verb.)

The Use of One of Those, Who(m), and Which as Subjects

When the phrases one of those, one of who(m), and one of which are used, one should see whether the words who, which, or those refer to a whole group or only to one individual or thing. The phrase takes a singular or plural verb depending on this.

 

Manisha is one of those students who have the textbook.

 

Here, Manisha is only a part of a larger group of students who have the book. Who refers to those students and therefore is plural, Thus, it takes the plural verb have. One the other hand, consider the following sentence:

 

Manisha is the only student who is present today.

 

Here, the word who refers to Manisha as the only one student and not as a part of a larger group of students. Hence a singular verb is used.

Who, Which, and That as Subjects

The verb used with who, which, and that agrees in number with the number of the antecedent word (previous word) to which it refers.

 

 

It, There Is, and There Are at the Subject Position

It used as a subject always needs a singular verb, without considering the number of whatever follows the verb.

 

It was the songs that made the movie so popular.

 

But the use of there is or there are depends on the complement placed after the verb.

 

Verbs

A verb is a word or group of words that express action or present a state in which a thing or person is. It may join the subject with the rest of the sentence. It is not possible to write or speak a complete sentence without at least one verb in it. Some characteristics of verbs are discussed below.

1. Verbs express action.

   I read poetry sometimes.

   She plays basketball daily.

2. Some verbs (known as linking verbs) show the relationship of the subject to the rest of the sentence.

   They feel happy.

   The child is hungry.

3. Verbs provide information regarding time.

   You are reading this book. (present)

   He went away. (past)

   I shall come tomorrow. (future)

4. Verbs indicate the number of the subject.

   Our English teacher loves her students. (singular: there is one doer of the action)

   They always shout in the class. (plural: there are multiple doers)

5. Verbs agree with the subject.

   I like to sing. (first person)

   We study together. (first person, plural)

   You like to sing. (second person)

   He/she likes to sing. (third person)

    

Exhibit A1.1
Verb Tenses

Verb Tense

Verb tense is the form of the verb that tells the reader the time of action. The verb tense indicates past, present, or future. There are four kinds of tenses each for present, past, and future:

1. Simple or indicative
2. Progressive or continuous: be + –ing form of the verb
3. Perfect: have/has, had, shall + –ed form of the verb
4. Perfect continuous: have/had + been + –ing form of the verb.

   Exhibit A1.1 shows how these verbs differ in usage.

Present tense There are four types of present tenses.

1. Simple or indicative present: The simple or indicative present tense describes situations or actions that are present now and are habitually true. At times, the simple present tense can express future time if there is another word in the sentence that clearly refers to the future.

    

   Simple present describes things (situations or actions) which are present now and are habitually true.

   Here comes the train. (happening just now)

   He goes out on tour every month. (habitually true)

   The earth goes round the sun. (always true)

   The square of two is four. (always true)

   Tomorrow, Shweta goes abroad. (future)

    

2. Present progressive (continuous): This is used in two situations.
   • To mention a particular action that is taking place at the time of speaking and is in progress and unfinished.

      

     I am writing a letter. (an activity in progress)

     The train is running late.

     He is sleeping.

      

   • To describe a situation—not an activity—that is temporary. He is sitting in the last row. (The present continuous form of the verb has two parts: is or are + –ing form of the verb)

      

     She is dancing.

     We are playing.

      

   The progressive form is not used to express what someone sees, hears, smells, feels, or tastes (the sense perceptions) on a specific occasion, bur rather, refers to perceptions that are in progress. Sometimes the simple present tense is used (e.g., I see a bus coming.). Note that this can also be written with the help of can (e.g., I can see a bus coming.). If the progressive form is used to express sense perceptions, it indicates something that is continuous over a much longer period.

   I am seeing much better since my operation.

    

   The progressive present tense is generally used in the passive voice when it refers to the future.

    

   The progressive present tense is generally used in the passive voice when it refers to the future

    

   The case is being discussed at the next board meeting. (not The case is discussed or The case is to be discussed)

    

   In addition, when the interrogative form is used, the progressive present tense is used.

    

   When are you going to meet them? (not When do you go to meet them?)

    

3. Present perfect: The present perfect tense describes an action that began in the past and continues in the present.

    

   I have taught this class for three months.

   I have used a ball pen since I was in school.

    

   The present perfect tense can take the form: — has (or) have + third form (past participle) of the verb.

    

   They have gone.

   He has finished the letter.

   I have written a letter.

    

4. Present perfect progressive (continuous): The present perfect tense describes action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future (as it has not yet finished).

   I have been writing the letter for an hour.

   We have been living here since 1997.

    

   The present perfect progressive tense can take the form: — have or has + been + –ing form of the verb.

    

   He has been reading.

   She has been dancing.

    

Past tense There are four types of past tenses.

1. Simple past: The simple past is used to describe actions or conditions of the past.

    

   We attended the summer training last year. (completed action)

   I was cold yesterday. (completed condition)

   Ancient people believed that the sun moved around the Earth.

   The train arrived before time.

   I studied for two hours.

    

2. Past continuous (progressive): The past continuous describes an action that took place in the past over a period of time.

    

   We were driving back when heavy rains came down.

   When we arrived, they were sleeping.

    

   The past continuous can take the form: — was or were + –ing form of the verb.

    

   She was dancing.

   He was eating.

    

3. Past perfect: This tense is used for an action or event completed before another event in the past.

    

   When we reached, the train had already left the station.

   The past perfect takes the form: — had + ed form of the verb (past participle).

    

4. Past perfect continuous: The past perfect continuous tense indicates a continuing condition in the past.

    

   My brother had been planning to come here when he fell ill.

    

Future tense There are four types of future tenses.

1. Simple future: The simple future tense expresses actions or events that will occur in the future. It takes the form: — shall or will + base form of the verb.

    

   I shall complete this letter tomorrow.

   I shall meet him.

   They will come.

    

2. Future continuous: The future continuous tense refers to future action that will go on for some time. It takes the form: — shall or will + be + –ing form of the verb.

    

   I shall be expecting your reply.

   He will be playing.

    

3. Future perfect: The future perfect tense indicates actions that will be completed by or before a specific time in the future.

    

   By Monday, the teacher will have covered this last chapter.

    

4. Future perfect progressive: The future perfect continuous tense is used to express actions or conditions that will continuously take place until a particular time in the future. It takes the form: will or shall + have + been + –ing form of the verb.

    

   In December we will have been doing this course for a year.

    

Tenses with since When since denotes time, it refers to a specific point of time in the past, up to and including the present moment. It connects a past action or situation with the present. Therefore, the word since is normally preceded by the perfect tense of the verb.

 

 

We have not seen any movies since March. (not did not see)

We have stayed in this house since 1996. (not we stay here)

 

If the activity or process described has been going on since the specified point and is still happening, the perfect continuous tense should be used.

 

I have been studying since 4 o’clock this morning. (not I am studying…)

 

When the specified point of time in the past is expressed by an adverbial clause beginning with since, the verb of this clause must be in the past tense.

 

He has not met me since we left Delhi. (not have left)

We have lived with our uncle since our father died. (not has died)

Since the move to the new house, he has been happier. (not has moved.)

 

When using since, the verb in the main clause is in the perfect tense and the word since is followed either by a word or a clause in the past tense or by a phrase showing past time (such as since the partition, since 1947, since last week).

Two exceptions to this general practice are:

1. When the main clause refers to the duration of time between a certain point in the past and the present, the present tense and not the perfect tense is used in this (main) clause.

    

   It is twenty days since I met him. (not has been)

   How long is it since you had been there? (not has it been)

    

2. When the point of time from which we consider the action or event in the past is the beginning of a situation that has continued and is still present, then the perfect tense is used in the since clause instead of the past tense.

    

   They have never been to that place since I have been away.

    

   In this sentence, since I have been away means ‘I am still away’; since I was away would have meant ‘I am no longer away’.

The future tense in adverbial clauses In an adverbial clause dependent on the main clause, the simple present tense is normally used.

 

 

I shall meet you when I come to Delhi. (not when I shall come)

We shall go on a tour as soon as the schools close. (not will close)

I shall not come if it rains.

You will miss the train unless you move faster.

I plan to buy a new car when the prices come down.

 

In reported speech, the verbs shall and will change to should or would in the main clause and the present tense of the subordinate clause is changed into the corresponding past tense.

 

He said he would wait until I come back.

My father told them that they should carry his umbrella in case it rained.

 

The helping verb will may be used in the subordinate clause, but not when referring to the future. Instead, it is used when referring to the present, for instance in the sense ‘if you are willing’.

 

He will sing if you join him.

 

Again, it is possible to use future tense in the adverbial clause. In these sentences, the second clause is not a subordinate clause; instead, it is an essential and restrictive modification to the main clause.

 

You may come tomorrow, when I shall have more time to meet you.

Go to the main market, where you will find a bookshop.

 

Sometimes, it is possible to use the present continuous form of the verb in the adverbial clause if the condition or activity is in progress at the time of making the statement.

 

I shall stay in if it is raining.

Do not go to your class if you are not feeling better.

Inform us if you are going to have guests.

 

Tense in sentences with conditions In sentences with conditions, the tense of the verb has to be in accordance with the nature (kind) of the condition. There are three kinds of conditions:

1. Probable condition (may or may not happen)
2. Improbable condition (might have happened, but has not)
3. Impossible condition (a supposed condition that cannot happen)

1. Probable condition: A probably condition is one that is uncertain, meaning it may or may not be fulfilled. It is also called an open condition. For a probable condition that refers to the present, the present tense is used in both the main clause and the conditional clause.

    

   In sentences with conditions, the tense of the verb has to be in accordance with the nature (kind) of the condition.

    

   If it rains, I shall not go out.

   If water boils, it turns to steam.

   If I study for too long, I become tired.

   If it is only 6 p.m., we have a lot of time to pack for the trip.

    

   If the condition refers to the future, the present tense is used in the conditional clause and the future tense is used in the main clause.

    

   If I am free, I shall go to meet her.

   If I find a good book, I shall get it for you.

    

   If an instruction or order is expressed in the main clause, the imperative form of the word is used in place of the future tense.

    

   If you see him, ask him to call me.

    

   In the case of past events or actions, both the clauses (main and conditional clauses) take the past tense.

    

   If the director received any report about a student, he investigated it personally.

    

   On the other hand, if the sentence refers to a particular event or situation that was in the future when considered from a specific point in the past, then the past tense is used in the conditional clause and the future in its past form in the main clause.

    

   If I had some free time, I would spend it doing some social service.

    

2. Improbable condition (a rejected condition): An improbable condition is one that could have been fulfilled, but has not been fulfilled. To express this kind of condition, the past subjunctive (conditional mood) is used in the conditional clause if the verb is of the ‘to be’ form. The past simple (indicative) is used if it is any other verb. The future in the past form is used in the main clause.

    

   If she were alive, we would reunite.

   If his marks were not so poor, he would be promoted.

   If we had money, we would go shopping.

    

   If these sentences referred to the past, then they would be written as:

    

   If she had been alive we could have reunited.

   If we had had money, we could have gone shopping.

    

3. Impossible condition: An impossible condition is a purely imaginary, hypothetical condition that could not be possibly true.

    

   If I were a king, I would rule by love, not by power or fear.

   If I had all the wealth in the world, I would still not be happy.

   If the sentence refers to the past, were changes to had been and would or should becomes would have or should have.

   I would have fought against this injustice if I were you.

   What would you have done if you had been caught taking a bribe?

    

Prepositions and Conjunctions

In English, the use of prepositions is by convention. There is no rule to explain why a certain verb, adjective, or noun is to be followed only by a particular preposition in a particular sense. Even native speakers of English sometimes have trouble sometimes choosing prepositions that follow certain words. Therefore, one should consult a dictionary for the correct use of prepositions when in doubt. Study the examples of idiomatic use of prepositions given in Exhibit A1.2.

 

 

Non-native speakers of English must learn the large number of two-part verbs, with their different meanings, such as:

add up: add	look for: seek
break down: analyse	look into: investigate
bring on: cause	look like: resemble
bring to: revive	look out for: beware of
burn down: destroy by burning	look up: search for
burn up: consume by fire	look over: examine
call off: cancel	pass out: distribute, faint
call up: telephone	pick out: choose
carry on: continue	put off: postpone
carry out: fulfil, complete	put out: extinguish
come back: return	run across: discover by chance
come over: visit	run into: meet by chance
come to: regain	run out of: exhaust one’s supply
cross out: delete	run over: hit by a car
cut down: reduce in quantity	show off: display
cut off: interrupt, sever	show up: appear
cut out: eliminate, delete	take down: record in writing
cut up: cut into small pieces	take off: remove, undress
get by: succeed with minimum effort	take up: bring up for discussion
get out of: escape, evade	talk over: discuss
get through: finish	try out: test
give out: distribute	turn in: deliver, hand over
give up: surrender	turn off: put out of operation
go over: review	turn on: put into operation
keep on: continue	use up: consume

Idiomatic Use of Prepositions

Note the use of correct prepositions in some common expressions:

 

He was accused of cheating. (not for cheating)

I am afraid of rats. (not from rats)

She was afraid to watch the horror movie. (No preposition is used when afraid is followed by the infinitive form of a verb.)

 

The teacher was very angry with her students. (not at or against her students)

 

He was angry at what I said. (One is angry with a person but at something.)

We do not approve of her remarks.

We always arrive at the office on time. (not arrive to the office)

I arrive home at nine o’clock daily.

It was quite late when we arrived at my sister’s home.

 

Exhibit A1.2
Use of Prepositions

No preposition is required before the word home. However, if home is used as a possessive noun, as in the phrase ‘my sister’s home’, it is preceded by the preposition at.

 

A learned person should not boast of his knowledge. (not for his knowledge)

A learned person should not boast about his knowledge. (The use of about is also correct with the word boast.)

My father is very careful of his health. (not for his health)

He was careful not to fall ill. (When careful is followed by an infinitive, no preposition is used.)

He was careless of the consequences.

The medicine will cure you of your cold. (not from your cold)

She died of cancer.

He died from overeating.

They died from their injuries. (One dies of a disease but from doing something.)

He is different from his brother. (Not than his brother)

We disapprove of his conduct. (not about his conduct)

She was dressed in black.

The box was full of sarees. (not full with sarees)

I was glad of a break after my long journey.

I am glad to inform you that we plan to visit you soon. (No preposition is used before an infinitive.)

Your warning was very helpful to us. (not for us)

My grandson is interested in cricket. (not about cricket)

Goats live on grass.

He lived by robbing others. (If live refers to earning a living, then by is used to specify the method or means of living.)

Flour is made from wheat. (not of wheat)

The chair is made of steel. (not from steel)

 

When a new substance is made out of something, the word from is used, but when the original material is not changed in substance and is only given a new form, the preposition of is used.

 

I married my friend’s sister.

 

As a verb, marry can be either transitive or intransitive. As a transitive verb it takes no preposition. But when used as an adjective, married is followed by to.

 

I am married to my friend’s sister.

 

In these sentences, the second clauses is not a subordinate clause,; instead, it is an essential and restrictive modificationreally coordinate to the main clause.

Words Followed by Prepositions

Particular words are followed by specific prepositions in different contexts, even though there may be several other prepositions that have the same meaning. For instance, out of the many prepositions or prepositional phrases signifying cause, the verb die takes only of for indicating an illness that was the cause of death. Thus we say, ‘He died of fever’. We do not say, ‘He died through fever, or by fever, or from fever, or owing to fever, or on account of fever, or with fever’. In other contexts, all of these prepositions may be used to denote cause. Though we always say ‘died of fever’, we never say ‘sick of fever’, but always ‘sick with fever’, where with and of are both used to indicate causes.

 

The following examples show what the meaning of a verb is when it stands alone, and how its meaning is modified when a preposition is added to it.

 

Attend He attends (goes to) the meeting. He attends to the meeting (gives his mind to the business of the meeting).

Bear We must bear (endure, suffer) his reproaches. We must bear with (endure patiently, tolerate) his reproaches.

 

Begin Let us begin his song (start singing it). Let us begin with this song (sing this song before we sing any other).

Believe I do not believe this man (accept his statements to be true). I do not believe in this man (trust in his honesty).

Call I will call him (say his name out loud and ask him to come). I will call on him (visit him at his house).

Catch He caught (seized) the reins. He caught at (tried to seize) the reins.

Close This closes (finishes, concludes) the bargain. I cannot close with (accept) such a bargain.

Commence We must commence this work (begin to do it) today. We should commence with this work (do this work before doing any other).

Consult I must consult you (ask your advice) on this point. I must consult (take counsel) with you on this point.

Count Have you counted (added up) the money? I count on that money (depend on it).

Deal He dealt (distributed) the cards. He dealt in (sold or traded) cards and other kinds of games.

Dispense Dispense (distribute) your chores fairly. We can dispense with (we do not require) your charity.

Eat Do you ever eat cheese? The mice are eating into the cheese (making a hole in it by eating).

Feel Feel this table (examine it by feeling or touching it). The blind man is feeling for the table (trying to find the table with his hands).

Gain He finally gained the land (reached it safely). The sea is gaining on the land (washing it down) along this coast.

Grasp He grasped (seized and held tight) the money. He grasped at (attempted to seize) the money.

Guard Guard this man (protect him) from danger. Guard against (take every precaution against) this man.

Guess He guessed the facts (correctly hit upon the facts by guess or conjecture). He guessed at the facts (made a guess or conjecture concerning them).

Inquire He inquired about the reason for the delay (asked what was the cause). He inquired into the reason for the delay (investigated the reason for the delay by carefully examining the evidence).

Meet I met him as I was walking down the road. I met with him (set up a prearranged meeting) in the library.

Prepare He prepared (got the food ready) a feast. He prepared for the feast (got ready for the feast).

Repair Let us repair the house (fix the problems). Let us repair to (go to) the house.

Search Search that thief (examine his clothes and belongings). Search for that thief (try to find where he is).

See Do you not see (perceive) this danger? We must see to this danger (attend to it).

Send Send (despatch) the doctor at once. Send for the doctor (call the doctor).

Snatch He snatched the book (seized it by a rapid movement of the hand). He snatched at the book (attempted to seize it).

Strike He struck the dog. He struck at (aimed a blow at or endeavoured to strike) the dog.

Taste He tasted the salt. This water tastes of (has a flavour of) salt.

Touch He has not yet touched that point (come to the point under debate). He touched upon the point (briefly alluded to it).

Work He worked (managed) the machine. He worked at (was busily engaged with) the machine.

Sometimes there is no appreciable difference of meaning between a verb standing alone and the same verb followed by a preposition. Here are some such examples:

Join, or join in, a game	Know, or know of, a fact
Beg, or beg of, a person to do something	Penetrate, or penetrate into
Confess, or confess to, a fault	Enter, or enter into, a house
Succeed, or succeed to, some goal	Judge, or judge of, a person

Structural Use of the Infinitive, Gerunds, and Participles

The Infinitive

To + verb (to walk) A verb that is used with ‘to’ does not have any number or person as it does not combine with any subject. This mood denotes an action, without referring to the doer.

There are four forms of the infinitive mood; two are in the present tense and two are in the past tense as shown in Exhibit A1.3.

An infinitive has no future form. However, the future can be expressed in the infinitive by a phrase such as ‘to be about to write’ and ‘to be on the point of wiring’.

Use of the infinitive without to To is usually used with an infinitive verb, but it can sometimes be omitted.

1. The word to is not used after the following main verbs: please, hear, see, feel, watch, behold, know, let, bid, dare, need, make.
   • Please hear me.
   • I hear you speak of a better future.
   • I saw her take the oath solemnly.
   • She feels the hot sand strike against her body.
   • They watched us leave and come back.
   • We watched the sun set.
   • Let the past remain buried.
   • She bade me tell her the whole story.
   • I dare not say this to my father.
   • The seniors made the juniors sit and get up a hundred times.

   Exercise A1.D
   Correct Use of Prepositions

   Insert the correct prepositions or prepositional phrases in the sentences below.

   • 1. I acquit you_____all complicity_____the crime and hope you will be compensated the troubles inflicted_____you_____the groundless imputation.
     2. I was horrified_____the sight_____so much distress.
     3. He did not die_____cholera, but_____the effects_____overexposure_____the sun_____an unhealthy time_____the year.
     4. This shopkeeper deals_____grain, but he did not deal honestly_____me, and I shall have no more dealings_____him in the future.
     5. You will have to answer_____me_____your misconduct.
     6. Forty students competed_____each_____another a single scholarship.
     7. I must consult_____you_____that matter.
     8. Do not exult_____the victory you have won_____your rival.
     9. He is not possessed_____much wisdom, but is possessed_____a very high notion_____his own importance.
     10. Will you entrust me_____that letter? No, I will entrust nothing_____you.
     11. Always be prepared_____the worst.
     12. That motive prevails_____me.
     13. I prevailed_____him to make the attempt, but he could not prevail his adversary.
     14. I rejoiced not only_____my own success, but_____yours too.
     15. We must provide_____our children.
     16. All nations are trying to stop industry_____polluting the environment.
     17. Why do you stare me_____the face? It is bad manners to stare_____one in that manner.
     18. The ship docked_____Gibraltar.
     19. He touched_____the subject of tides.
     20. He supplied money_____the men; in return, they supplied his horses provender.
     21. He could smile_____their threats for fortune continued to smile him.
     22. They proceeded_____discuss the matters that had come up yesterday, before they proceeded_____the consideration of new questions.
     23. Do not live_____riches, but whatever you live_____, live_____ honesty; and if you have to live_____ a small income, live_____ your means.
     24. He is labouring_____ a misapprehension, but he thinks he is labouring_____ a good cause and_____ the public welfare.
     25. He once helped me_____ an obligation, and therefore I am very unwilling to lay the blame of this affair_____ him.
     26. He not only intruded my property, but_____ my leisure, for I was engaged_____ that time_____ reading an interesting book.
     27. The railway lines intersect _____each other_____ this place.
     28. Let me intercede_____ you_____ my friend.
     29. I inquired_____ that matter.
     30. He is impressed_____ that notion, and he desires to impress it_____ me.
   • 1. The river_____ which I went fishing_____ my brother abounds_____ fish; we took a boat and rowed_____ the stream_____ the opposite bank.
     2. He promised to abide_____ the contract, and they relied_____ his honour_____ its fulfilment. But they were disappointed_____ this decision and found they could never trust their work_____ him again.
     3. He lives_____ very little and does so_____ abstaining_____ every kind of luxury and accustoming himself_____ humble fare such as is suitable_____ a person_____ small income.
     4. The person who stood_____ the judge yesterday was accused_____ throwing a stone_____ his neighbour’s window; but nothing more came_____ the matter and he was acquitted_____ the charge.
     5. A man_____ integrity will adhere_____ his convictions and act_____ a sense_____ duty, even if men rail_____ him and think him weak_____ his understanding and common sense.
     6. The intentions_____ that man admit_____ no doubt; we must agree_____ his terms, whether we approve_____ them or not, and there is no reason to be anxious_____ the result.
     7. Aim_____ doing your duty_____ all risks, and do not be uneasy in mind the _____consequences.
     8. He was much alarmed_____ what he had just heard and alluded_____ it as soon as he arrived_____ my house and alighted_____ his carriage.
     9. The ship stopped a little away_____ the shore, and an experienced man was at once appointed_____ the post of pilot_____ bringing her_____ port.
     10. He had a great affection_____ his parents, but he had no taste_____ hard work and was not attentive_____ his studies.
     11. One man complained_____ the magistrate_____ Ashish’s dishonesty; another brought a complaint_____ Ashish that he had some debt; in fact, Ashish had made many enemies_____ himself.
     12. When you are in school, attend_____ your studies. What has been the cause_____your idleness hitherto? Surely there was no just cause_____ such laziness.
     13. He took advantage_____my ignorance, but he gained no real advantage_____me in the end.
     14. I am vexed_____him_____what he has done.
     15. A man is adapted_____any occupation that is adapted his capacities.
2. If dare is being used as an affirmative verb (without not), the word to is used after dare.

    

   She dares to do it herself.

   He dares to challenge his elder brother.

    

3. To is used after the adjective better.

    

   Better to be late than absent.

   Better to live on dreams.

    

4. To is not used after the verb had in phrases like ‘had sooner’, ‘had better’, and ‘had rather’.

    

   She had better not remain here.

   I had rather read this book than that journal.

   I had as soon walk as run.

    

   (Please note that ‘had’ here is used in a subjective sense ‘would have’. ‘I had rather read this book than that journal’ means I would prefer to read the book instead of the journal.)

5. To is not used after the conjunction than.

    

   I am better able to sing than dance. (than I am able to dance)

    

   Exhibit A1.3
   Forms of the Infinitive

   
6. To is left out after the preposition but if it follows the verb do.

    

   They did nothing but talk.

    

   The sentences below use verbs that do not require to when used in the infinitive:

   • Let us/go for a walk.
   • Do not let his threats/stop you.
   • She lets her students/read what they want.
   • I felt the table/shake.
   • He will not have his sons/spoil themselves.
   • I heard someone/come in.
   • I watched the train/disappear from my sight.
   • She made her students/repeat the lessons.
   • They did not notice anyone/come out of the door.
   • Many people saw the thief/snatch her chain.

   The words help and know can take the infinitive form with or without to.

    

   A driver helped me start my car.

   A driver helped me to start my car.

   I felt the suggestion to be excellent. (Here, felt is used in the sense ‘to think’.)

    

Two types of infinitives Infinitives are of two kinds:

1. The simple infinitive, also called the noun infinitive
2. The qualifying infinitive or the gerundial infinitive

The noun infinitive acts as a noun and can be used as (a) the subject of a verb; (b) the object to a verb; (c) the complement to a verb; or (d) the object to certain prepositions.

• As the subject of a verb:

   

  To forgive is to forget. (The noun is forgiveness.)

   

• As the object to a verb:

   

  A brave man does not fear to die. (The noun is death.)

   

• As the complement to a verb:

   

  The Supreme Court ordered him to be released.

  She appears to be an intelligent student.

   

• As the object to the prepositions about, except, but, and than:

   

  The train was about to depart. (The noun is departure.)

  He aimed at nothing but to succeed (success).

  She did nothing other than sing.

The gerundial or qualifying infinitive can be used to (a) qualify a verb, (b) qualify a noun, (c) qualify an adjective, or (d) introduce a parenthesis.

• It can qualify a verb by modifying its sense of purpose, cause, or result.

   

  They came to meet me. (qualifies purpose)

  She wept to see her ailing mother (qualifies cause).

  I studied hard to be selected in the last round. (qualifies result)

   

• It can qualify a noun by modifying its sense of purpose. The infinitive can be attributive or predicative.

   

  A house to let. (attributive)

  This house is to be sold (predicative, complement to verb is)

   

• It can qualify an adjective by modifying its sense of purpose or respect.

   

  She is quick to learn and quick to forget.

   

• An example of the gerundial infinitive being used to introduce a parenthetical statement is:

   

  I am, to tell you the truth, sick of all these discussions.

   

  Thus, a gerundial infinitive can work both as an adverb and an adjective.

It is generally used as the subject and followed by an infinitive, in apposition to ‘it’ after the adjective. Study the basic pattern of this structural use of the infinitive as given in Exhibit A1.4.

The same structure may also be used with a noun in place of an adjective before the infinitive, as shown in Exhibit A1.5.

All the statements made in sentences with the form ‘adjective + the infinitive’ are general. They can be applied to anyone. If they are to be applied only to a particular group of people, then a restrictive phrase beginning with for is used between the adjective and the infinitive. By doing this, the noun or pronoun that follows for becomes the subject of the infinitive. For example, see the sentences in Exhibit A1.6.

In some cases, for can be used even after a noun (not an adjective) to emphasize the doer and not the action. Examples are shown in Exhibit A1.7.

The Participle

A participle is a double or two parts of speech combined in one: a verb and adjective combined. For instance, in the sentence ‘An experienced teacher is required’, a verb and adjective are combined. The word experience acts as a verb here, for it is a form of the verb to experience. It acts also as an adjective because it qualifies the noun teacher. Therefore, a participle is a verbal adjective.

 

 

The forms of participles are as follows:

Transitive verbs

	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present or continuous tense	Writing	Being written
Past tense	(X)	Written
Perfect tense	Having written	Having been written

Intransitive verbs

	Active Voice
Present or continuous tense	Rising
Past tense	Risen
Perfect tense	Having risen

As part of a finite verb, all the tenses of the passive voice are formed from the ‘to be’ form of the verb and the past participle (‘The letter is written’, ‘The letter was written’, ‘The letter will be written’). All the continuous tenses in the active voice are formed with the help of the ‘to be’ form of verb followed by the present participle (‘I was writing a letter’, ‘I shall be writing a letter’). Again, all the perfect tenses in the active voice are formed with the verb ‘to have’ followed by the past participle (‘I had written’, ‘I shall have written’).

 

Exhibit A1.4
Structural Use of the Infinitive

Exhibit A1.5
Structural Use of the Infinitive

Exhibit A1.6
Restrictive Use of the Infinitive with for

Exhibit A1.7
Use of for to Emphasize the Doer

When a participle acts as an adjective, it is generally a descriptive adjective. Like any descriptive adjective it can (a) qualify a noun, (b) be qualified by an adverb, (c) change according to degrees of comparison, and (d) be used as a noun.

• Being tired of writing, I went for a walk.
• The injured were rushed to the hospital in.
• The colour of my shirt is more faded than that of his shirt.
• The witness could not recall the past.

When a participle acts as a verb, it can have an object, which can be of five kinds:

 

Having finished the work, he went home. (Direct object)

She stays there, teaching her friend’s children English. (Indirect object)

Having been taught English so thoroughly, he was an effective teacher. (Retrieved object)

I saw Iraqis fighting a losing battle. (Cognate object).

Having sat herself down, she began to drink. (Reflective object)

 

The use of past participles in active or passive voice depends upon whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. In the case of a transitive verb, the past participle is always used with the passive voice, never in the active voice.

 

The much-awaited news turned out to be disappointing.

 

If the verb is intransitive, the past participle is not used at all in most cases. But if it is used, it is placed before its noun and not after it. Examples are: the lost leader, the retired general, the fallen tower, a failed student, a departed friend, a faded lily, a withered plant, the dead soldier.

The past participle of verbs sometimes expresses some permanent habit, state, or character.

 

An outspoken person (a person who always speaks his/her mind).

A well-behaved boy (a boy whose habitual behaviour is good).

A well-read scholar (a scholar who has read a lot).

Gerunds

A gerund is a term that combines a verb and a noun.

 

I dream of becoming a great scholar.

 

In this sentence becoming is a part of the verb become, and it is also a noun as it is the object to which the preposition of refers. A gerund is called a ‘verbal noun’.

Because a gerund is a kind of noun, it has to be the subject to some verb or the object to some transitive verb; or the complement to some intransitive verb; or the object to some preposition.

 

Subject of a verb: Walking is good for one’s health.

Object to a verb: I enjoy walking early in the morning in the park.

Complement to a verb: His first interest was eating.

Object to a preposition: He was interested in eating.

 

A gerund is like an abstract noun or a noun infinitive.

 

Gerund: Walking is good for one’s health.

Noun-infinitive: To walk is good for one’s health.

Abstract Noun: An early morning walk is good for health.

 

As verbal noun, the gerund to be is preceded by the and followed by of.

 

I am busy in the writing of a new book.

I am busy in writing a new book.

 

When used as a part of a verb, a gerund can be followed by an object, which may be of the following kinds:

 

Direct (with transitive verb): He is good at teaching English.

Indirect (with transitive verb): He is good at teaching his sister English.

Retained (with passive voice): She is pleased at being taught English.

Cognate (with intransitive verb): We are ashamed of having fought a poor fight.

Reflective (with intransitive verb): He is fond of praising himself.

 

Some verbs can be used either with a gerund or an infinitive as an object. However, there is a difference in the way they are used. The infinitive refers to a specific occasion or a specific instance, whereas the gerund refers to something that is more general.

 

She does not like to write to the newspapers. (on a specific subject or point in time)

She does not like writing to the newspapers. (a general dislike)

We prefer to stay together. (on a particular occasion)

We prefer staying together. (general preference)

 

The infinitive used with afraid (of) refers to the thing that fear discourages one from doing.

 

The old man was afraid to cross the street.

Arun was afraid to touch the cobra.

 

The gerund indicates a possible result that causes the particular fear. In these examples, the old man was afraid of being run over by a vehicle when crossing the street and Arun was afraid of being bitten by the cobra.

The gerund is the only part of a verb that follows a preposition.

 

I was punished for disturbing the class.

 

The typical examples of this pattern are given below.

 

We locked the gates/before going out.

The thief entered the house/by breaking the door.

We cannot live/without sleeping.

She was congratulated/on winning the gold medal.

The magistrate fined/me for speeding.

She is very clever/at designing dresses.

 

Adjectives and verbs (fond of, interested in, object to) that are always used in a specific combination must be followed by a gerund, not an infinitive.

 

My son is interested in reading novels (not to read novels)

She objects to doing it. (not objects to do it).

 

EngLISH uSagE

In this section, we shall discuss some common pitfalls that need to be avoided in order to write correct and complete sentences.

Dangling Modifiers

Incorrect: Expecting a large crowd, extra chairs were provided by the management. (This is a dangling modifier because the modifier does not logically and sensibly refer to the subject of the main clause. It is not the ‘extra chairs’ (subject) that are ‘expecting a large crowd’.)

Correct: Expecting a large crowd, the management provided extra chairs.

Correct: Since a large crowd was expected, extra chairs were provided by the management.

Vague references of This, That, and Which

Incorrect: He wants to begin immediately and to make his first sale before the end of the year. As a result of this, he will probably become a successful salesman.

Correct: He wants to begin immediately and to make his first sale before the end of the year. As a result of this attitude, he will probably become a successful salesman. (This must not refer to a cause, sentence, or idea; it must refer to one specific word.)

Lack of Parallel construction

Incorrect: The man liked meeting and to talk to people. (And joins one gerund and one infinitive construction here.)

Correct: The man liked to meet and talk to people. (And joins parallel infinitive constructions here.)

Correct: The man liked meeting and talking to people. (And joins parallel gerund constructions that express ideas of equal importance.)

Note that parallel construction is equally important in the enumeration of points in lists, as shown by the following example.

Incorrect:

1. The company should increase the price of all products.
2. Increase the variety of products.
3. Provide more services.
4. They should review their advertising programme.

Correct:

The company should:

1. increase the price of all products
2. increase the variety of products
3. provide more services
4. review their advertising programme

Inconsistent Use of Verb tenses

The verb tense should be consistent within the sentence (as in the example below) and from sentence to sentence within the paragraph.

 

Incorrect: He usually makes sensible decisions although he frequently changed his mind. (Tense shifts from present tense in the main clause to past tense in the subordinate clause.)

Correct: He usually makes sensible decisions although he frequently changes his mind.

Choosing the Mood

Generally speaking, the imperative mood should be avoided in report writing. The imperative expresses a command or a strong request; a report should suggest or recommend rather than command.

 

Incorrect: Do this work carefully; you should also do it slowly. (Verb shifts from imperative to indicative mood.)

Correct: You should do this carefully; you should also do it slowly.

Correct: Do this work carefully; also, do it slowly.

Separation of Related Sentence Elements

Incorrect: I, hoping very much to find Mrs Singh at home and to sell her one of our new products, knocked at the door. (Separation of subject, I, and verb, knocked, is not necessary.)

Correct: Hoping very much to find Mrs Singh at home and to sell her one of our new products, I knocked at the door.

Incorrect: I only telephoned those men. (Separation of adverb only and those men, which only modifies, is not necessary.)

Correct: I telephoned only those men.

Lack of Subject–Verb Agreement

Incorrect: The price of the new products were reasonable.

Correct: The price of the new products was reasonable. (A singular verb is used to agree with the singular subject, even though a plural word intervenes.)

Incorrect: The advantage of Product A and Product B are the profits.

Correct: The advantage of Product A and Product B is the profits. Incorrect: There are a man and some women waiting to see me.

Correct: There is a man and some women waiting to see me. (When a sentence begins with ‘there’, the verb agrees with the subject that immediately follows it.)

Incorrect: Everyone on the top three floors work for one company.

Correct: Everyone on the top three floors works for one company (A singular verb is used to agree with a singular subject, especially when the subject is ‘everyone’ or ‘each’.)

Incorrect: Only one of the girls who play the sitar came today.

Correct: Only one of the girls who plays the sitar came today. (A singular verb is used to agree with one, the singular word to which the subject who refers. This is important when the subject of the verb is who, which, or that.)

Incorrect: Neither the report nor its appendix were published.

Correct: Neither the report nor its appendix was published. (A singular verb is used to agree with singular subjects joined by or or nor.)

Note that if one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb agrees with the nearest subject. For example, it is correct to say, ‘Neither the report nor the books were published’. Also, note that the plural subject is kept after or or nor, near the verb.

Lack of Pronoun Agreement

Incorrect: Everyone brought lunch to work.

Correct: Everyone brought his lunch to work. (One must use a singular pronoun to agree with everyone, the singular word to which the pronoun refers.)

Incorrect: He does not usually make those kind of errors.

Correct: He does not usually make that kind of error. (Singular pronoun is used to agree with kind, the singular noun that the pronoun modifies. This is important when this, that, these, or those modify kind or sort.)

Correct: He does not usually make these kinds or errors. (Here, a plural pronoun modifies the plural noun.)

Incorrect: Neither the manager nor his favourite employee could do their work alone.

Correct: Neither the manager nor his favourite employee could do his work alone. (A singular pronoun is used to agree with the singular words, which are joined by nor and to which the pronoun refers.)

If or or nor joins one singular word and one plural word, the pronoun agrees with the one nearest to it.

Neither the manager nor the workers were aware of their error.

Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs

The words hard, hardly, late, lately, most, and mostly need to be used carefully. As adjectives, hard, late, and most have two adverb forms, which should be clearly understood.

Hard, when used as an adverb means ‘strenuously’ or ‘diligently’. It is normally placed after the verb and is an adverb of manner.

 

I worked hard yesterday. (not hardly)

She worked hard to pass the examination. (not hardly)

 

Sometimes, for emphasis, hard can be used at the beginning of a sentence. However, this usage is relatively rare.

 

Hard as she tried, she could not get through.

 

Hardly, an adverb, means ‘not much’ or ‘scarcely’. It is an adverb of degree and is used before the verb. If the verb is used with an auxiliary, the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the next part of the verb.

 

He sang so softly that the audience could hardly hear him.

He was so shrunken that I hardly recognized him.

This pen has hardly been used.

Hardly had he gone when his wife reached here.

 

The adverb late means two things:

1. ‘after the expected time’ or ‘after the time by which something should have happened or been done’.

    

   Every Sunday morning they wake up late.

   Three times this week he has come to office late.

    

2. ‘towards the end of a specified period of time’

   Doctors refuse to visit patients late at night.

   I called her late in the afternoon.

   She did not have a child until quite late in life.

    

   Lately means ‘recently’.

    

   Have you seen any good movies lately?

   Have you met your brother lately?

    

   Most, as an adverb, means ‘to the greatest extent’.

    

   The thing that I admire most is simplicity. (not mostly)

   He who boasts most is often one who does least.

    

   Mostly means ‘for the most part’.

    

   The lecture mostly covered recent trends in politics.

   The paper consisted mostly of old questions.

    

Adverbs Ending In –ly

Consider the adverbs formed by adding ly to an adjective: gladly, slowly, foolishly, wisely, nicely.

 

These adverbs are usually adverbs of manner. But if an adjective itself ends with ly, it cannot normally be changed into an adverb. Such words can act as both adjectives and/ or adverbs.

1. Words that act both as adjectives and adverbs, without any modification, include cowardly, daily, early, fortnightly, hourly, surely, nightly, only, weekly, and yearly.

    

   She has arrived via an early flight. (adjective)

   She has come early. (adverb)

   There is an hourly change of classes. (adjective)

   The classes change hourly. (adverb)

   The Statesman is a daily newspaper. (adjective)

   The Statesman is published daily. (adverb)

    

2. Words ending in ly that are used only as adjectives include brotherly, fatherly, motherly, friendly, gentlemanly, godly, goodly, homely, likely, lovely, manly, seemly, unseemly, and womanly. These can be changed into adverbs by using a phrase such ‘in a brotherly manner’ or ‘in a lovely fashion’, or ‘in a manly way’.

    

   He is a very friendly boss. (adjective)

   She received us in a very friendly manner. (adverb)

Note that the word kind (an adjective) has kindly as its adverb. But kindly is also an adjective.

 

My father had a kindly nature. (adjective)

My father always talked to us in a very kindly manner. (adjective)

Errors in the Use of Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectival complements

1. Study the following sentences:

   The sky became bright. (not brightly)

   This year good apples are rare. (not rarely)

   She got angry. (not angrily)

   The tea became bitter. (not bitterly)

   The job is difficult though it appears easy. (not easily)

   The price seems to be low. (not lowly)

In these sentences, the verbs to be, to seem, to become, and so on (appear, feel, look, grow, turn) need an adjective and not an adverb to act as a complement that qualifies the subject to complete the meaning of the sentence. No adverb is required to modify the verb. Note that when the verbs turn, grow, and appear are used in a different sense, they are followed by an adverb, not an adjective.

 

The ship appeared suddenly on the horizon.

These plants have grown quickly.

She turned and left unexpectedly.

 

In these sentences, appear means ‘come into sight’, grow means ‘increase in size’, and turn means ‘move in a particular direction’.

On the other hand, an adjective, not an adverb, is used after verbs such as feel, sound, taste, and smell, to show a quality experienced by one of the physical senses.

 

This cloth feels smooth.

These pipes sound nice.

This orange tastes sour.

That rose smells sweet.

 

StYLE

In this section, we shall discuss some stylistic aspects that need to be considered in written communication—punctuation, capitalization, and footnotes and endnotes (documentation styles). The writer should have an eye for the finer nuances of style, without which a document may appear very informal and unpolished.

Punctuation

Of all punctuation symbols, the four discussed below are the ones most commonly misused.

The Comma

A comma is used to:

1. Set off main clauses joined by and, but, or, nor, and for.

    

   The first alternative certainly offered the company many advantages, but the sec-ond was probably more economical.

    

   However, if the clauses are short, the comma separation is unnecessary.

    

   She bought him a nice shirt but lost it.

    

2. Separate long introductory elements from the rest of the sentence.

    

   When all the proposals had been fully investigated and discussed, we were able to make the final decision.

    

   However, when the introductory element is particularly short, a comma is not required.

    

   On Friday we were able to make the final decision.

    

3. Separate words in a series of three or more. The last comma in the series is optional and depends on the writer’s preference.

    

   The controller of accounts, vice-president and president took part in the investigation.

    

   The last comma in the series may be required in some cases, for clarity.

    

   The controller of accounts, vice-president and general manager, and the president took part in the investigation. (The second comma in this sentence indicates that one person holds the dual position of vice-president and general manager.)

    

4. Set off parenthetical expressions from the rest of the sentence.

   A parenthetical expression is one that is inserted into a sentence; therefore, the latter must be grammatically complete without it. Unless it begins or ends a sentence, a parenthetical expression should be set off by two commas.

    

   Ram, unlike his brother, was a good salesman.

    

   Exercise A1.I
   Usage of Adverbs and Adjectives

   Fill in the sentences below using the adjective or adverb given in parentheses.

   1. It feels very_____ in this room. (cold, coldly)
   2. The weather has turned_____. (hot, hotly)
   3. At her call, I turned around_____. (sudden, suddenly)
   4. He seems very_____ at this result. (sad, sadly)
   5. Some trees grow very_____. (slow, slowly)
   6. She looks_____ in this dress. (pretty, prettily)
   7. His story is to appear very_____. (short, shortly)
   8. Her signature does not appear to be_____. (genuinely, genuine)
   9. If you feel_____, remove the shirt. (warm, warmly)
   10. The director congratulated the award winners_____. (warm, warmly)
   11. The girl was very_____ to catch the robber by herself. (brave, bravely)
   12. Theaudiencebecame_____ whenthewinnersoftheBestFilmawardcameonstage. (excited, excitedly)
   13. Her room smells_____ of sandalwood. (strong, strongly)
   14. Our new teacher seems very_____. (strict, strictly)
   15. This food smells very. (appetizing, appetizingly)

   Sometimes, if the expression does not cause an abrupt interruption, the comma separation is unnecessary (especially with the words also, too, indeed, at least, perhaps, and likewise).

    

   Ram’s personality was indeed more pleasing than his brother’s.

    

   When a parenthetical expression (particularly a lengthy one) causes an abrupt interruption, dashes or parentheses may be used instead of commas. Like the comma, dashes and parentheses must be used in pairs. However, they should be used much less frequently than commas.

    

   Ram was a good salesman—he sold more than anyone else in the company— and had a pleasing personality. (emphatic.)

   Ram was a good salesman (he sold more than anyone else in the company) and had a pleasing personality. (less emphatic.)

    

5. Set off non-restrictive elements

   Non-restrictive elements are parenthetical (see iv above) and are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They must be set off by two commas.

    

   Ram, who sold more than anyone else in the company, was awarded the salesmen’s trophy.

    

6. Set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.

    

   The foreman replied, ‘I have done all I can’ and left the room.

    

   A comma is not used to:

   • Separate the subject and the verb or the verb and the object.

      

     Incorrect: The company with the best reputation in this area, was awarded the contract. (subject–verb separation)

     Correct: The company with the best reputation in this area was awarded the contract.

     Incorrect: The company knew last week, that it had been awarded the contract. (verb–object separation)

     Correct: The company knew last week that it had been awarded the contract.

      

     If words requiring punctuation (see points (d) and (e) above) intervene between the subject and the verb or between the verb and the object, the comma is then necessary.

      

     ABC Company, which has a good reputation in this area, was awarded the contract. (Non-restrictive phrase intervenes between the verb and object.)

     The company knew last week, probably by Wednesday, that it had been awarded the contract. (Non-restrictive phrase intervenes between the verb and the object.)

      

   • Join two main clauses unless and, but, or, nor, or for comes between them.

      

     Incorrect: The salesman displayed his goods, then he talked about the newest product.

     Correct: The salesman displayed his goods. Then he talked about the newest product.

     Correct: The salesman displayed his goods, and then he talked about the newest product.

      

   • Separate two words or phrases joined by and, but, or, nor, or for.

      

     Incorrect: I cannot remember whether the head office is in Calcutta, or in Bombay.

     Correct: I cannot remember whether the head office is in Calcutta or in Bombay.

      

   • Separate an adjective from the noun it modifies.

      

     Incorrect: We should choose an economical, flexible, plan.

     Correct: We should choose an economical, flexible plan.

      

   • Separate parentheses from the rest of the sentence.

      

     Incorrect: Several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense, (see Exhibit I).

     Correct: Several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense (see Exhibit I).

     Incorrect: Although several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense, (see Exhibit I), they are not important.

     Correct: Although several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense (see Exhibit I), they are not important. (Second comma is necessary to set off the introductory element.)

      

The Colon

A colon is used to:

1. Introduce a list (often preceded by ‘the following’ or ‘as follows’).

    

   The following men were nominated for the top honour: Singh, Jain, Basu, and Jha.

    

2. Separate two main clauses where the second clause explains the first.

    

   The purpose of his speech was obvious: he wanted to present a concise outline of company policy.

The Semi-Colon

A semi-colon is used to:

1. Separate two main clauses that are not joined by the conjunctions and, but, or, nor or for.

    

   At this time last year, Mr Singh was the company’s general manager; he is now the president. (A full stop could be substituted for the semi-colon, but the latter is preferable when the clauses are short and closely related in thought).

    

2. Separate two main clauses joined by however, therefore, moreover, consequently, also, furthermore, nevertheless, then, thus, or likewise.

    

   We thought that Ram would be the new president; however, his brother was chosen instead.

    

3. Separate two independent clauses when the second clause is preceded by ‘for example’, ‘that is’, or ‘namely’.

    

   We do not like the attitude of the new manager; that is, we resent his air of superiority.

    

4. Separate items in a series when the items within the series contain commas.

    

   We called on Mr Singh, the president; Mr Jain, the vice-president and general manager; Mr Basu, the controller of accounts; and Mr Jha, the secretary.

   We chose these people because they held responsible positions, both within the company and in organizations outside; because they had valuable experience; because they had the ability to work well with others; and because they all had the time for outside work.

    

   A semi-colon should not be used to separate a main clause from a subordinate clause.

    

   Incorrect: Mr Singh was named honorary president; because of his long association with the firm.

   Correct: Mr Singh was named honorary president because of his long associa-tion with the firm.

Except in cases where it separates items in a series, the semi-colon always separates one main clause from another main clause.

The Apostrophe

The apostrophe is used to show possession in the following instances:

1. For possessive singular nouns such as ‘manager’s salary’ and ‘man’s character’ (an s is added to the noun).
2. For possessive plurals of nouns, such as ‘managers’ salaries’ (only the apostrophe is used if the plural form of the word ends in s) and ‘men’s salaries (where an s is added after the apostrophe as the plural does not end in s).
3. For the possessive form of the pronouns one, someone, somebody, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, none, and nobody. An example is anyone’s, in which an s is added to the pronoun.

   An apostrophe should not be used for the pronouns his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, or whose because they are already possessive.

    

   Incorrect: It’s meaning was clear (‘It’s’ means ‘it is’)

   Correct: Its meaning was clear

Capitalization

The rules for the capitalization of words in English are simple and not especially numerous. The first word in a sentence, the first word in any quotation included within a sentence, and the first word of any phrase that is used as a sentence should be capitalized.

 

The office building is fully air-conditioned.

She answered the telephone and said, ‘Good morning! May I help you?’ (This is an example of capitalization in a sentence, a quotation, and a phrase used as a sentence.)

 

In addition, the following should be capitalized: the names of people; specific geographical locations; calendar indications such as the days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays; the names of organizations, including government bodies; and historical events and documents. When capitalizing the names of people, one may sometimes encounter parts of names that are not capitalized, such as Emil von Hoffman, Leonardo da Vinci, and Simone de Beauvoir. Generally, all parts of a person’s name are capitalized, including any initials. If titles are used with the name, these titles are also capitalized.

Ram Chandra	Mrs Deepti Chaturvedi
John S Morgan	Mr H F Khan
Rev. Samel Wilkins	Senator William Kaufmann

In written English, only proper nouns are capitalized. It is incorrect to capitalize common nouns such as woman, man, boy or girl. Unless a specific person is named, capitalization is not required. The same is true for geographical locations. A specific location, site, or area requires capitalization. When a word such as street, building, park, mountain, or river is included in the name of a particular place, it becomes specific because it names a distinctive thing or place rather than a general location. When the location is mentioned in specific terms, it should be capitalized. When it is given in general terms, it should not be capitalized.

 

The Times Building was built in 1936. (specific)

The building that houses our office has been sold. (general)

The southeast part of the United States is known for its cotton production. (general)

South India has a temperate climate. (specific)

The river was muddy after several days of rain. (general)

The Ganges flooded last year. (specific)

 

All calendar designations and names of holidays should be capitalized, but the names of seasons are not.

July	Monday	Christmas
March	Friday	Teachers’ Day
winter		Diwali

The names of organizations, companies, and government bodies should be capitalized, but if they are preceded by the word the, it is not capitalized unless it is a part of the official name.

the United Nations	the Bank of Korea
the Rialto Theater	the University of Delhi
the Advertising Council, Inc.	the Better Business Bureau
the Internal Revenue Service	the RAND Corporation

All names of continents, countries, states, and cities and the adjectives derived from these are capitalized.

 

The western part of Russia is in Europe, but its eastern part is in Asia.

Our company has branch offices in Seattle, Phoenix, Kansas City, Memphis, and Cleveland.

I plan to study the history of the Spanish-speaking people in the West Indies.

Cézanne and Renoir were French artists.

 

The names of commercial products should also be capitalized, but do not capitalize the generic name when it is not part of the brand name. For example, Esquire Boot Polish and Lipton Cup-A-Soup are the correct brand names, but Maxwell House Coffee and Van Heusen Shirts are not correct, although Maxwell House makes coffee and Van Heusen makes shirts.

Documentation

Any report or document that relies on other sources of information (books, journals, diaries, interviews, and so on) needs to identify its sources clearly. Ethical considerations and copyright norms make it essential to document the sources or references of a text, but the styles of documentation may vary.

Documentation of cross-references should be done in a way that does not disturb the flow of argument and reading. The writer can provide references in footnotes or can describe all references together in endnotes, which is a list of all references at the end of a report. In both cases, the reader can find all the necessary details about sources mentioned in the report and can check the correctness of facts by consulting the original sources. Endnotes are usually preferred, as they are easier to refer to when desired. Also, footnotes make it more difficult to space the material on the page.

Each reference to be cited in endnotes or footnotes is numbered consecutively, as 1, 2, 3, and so on. Each reference should have the same number when mentioned in the body of the discussion. The reference is documented in the body of the text as:

 

‘The marketing strategist described by Lovatt uses a computer to design his concepts of virtual markets for products’.³

 

Here, the superscript 3 refers to the third endnote in the list of references. One way to format the reference in the list of endnotes is:

 

3.Lovatt, Frederick G. et al. Management is No Mystery, 2nd Ed. Ed. Robt B. Arpin. Trent, Ariz.: Bonus Books, 1975.

 

A writer may refer to a wide range of published (and unpublished) sources when writing a report or preparing a document, be it a book by one author, a chapter in a book by multiple authors, a magazine article, or a report. He or she may also use any of the wide variety of styles of documentation—the American Psychological Association (APA) style, the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, or the Chicago style, for instance.

Regardless of which style the writer chooses, the complete publishing details of the work should be documented. Such details include the authors’ full names, the name of the article or book, the name of the publisher/magazine/journal, the year (or date) of publication, and the page numbers.

The APA Style

The APA style was developed by the American Psychological Association (APA).

In-text citation In the social sciences, the APA style indicates the source of information within the body of the report/paper by using parenthetical references mentioning the author, date, and page number in the parentheses placed immediately after the matter quoted or referred. This running method is now generally used in making references, as it allows for smooth reading.

When quoting material, the page number should be indicated with ‘p.’ for one page or ‘pp.’ for more than one page, immediately after the quotation. This should be done even if the sentence in which the quotation occurs does not end immediately after the quotation.

If the sentence mentions the name of the author and year, only the page number is given within parentheses at the end of the sentence.

 

Schindler in Business Research Methods, 1998, says ‘ -----------’ (p. 14).

 

If the sentence mentions the author’s name, then only the year and page number should be given immediately after the name.

 

Schindler (1998, p. 120) says …’.

 

In other cases, all three pieces of information should be given in parentheses.

 

‘(Schindler, 1998, p. 120)’.

 

Note that a comma is used after the author’s name and after the year of publication. The page number can appear separately as well:

 

Schindler (1998) considers research ‘too narrowly defined if it is restricted to the basic research variety’ (p. 12).

 

The purpose of mentioning all three details—author, year, and page—at the end of the quoted or referred material is to help the reader locate the material in the original source if required. Sometimes in survey reports, figures are inaccurate or exaggerated. In such cases, specific references to sources of information help readers check the information given in the report.

Reference list A list of sources arranged in alphabetical order is given at the end of the report, paper, or chapter. The entries are arranged according to the author’s name. If the author’s name is not given in the original source of information, the entry is put in alphabetical order according to the first significant word of the title, not including articles (a, an, and the). Exhibit A1.8 shows a few samples of the APA style of referencing and its in-text citations.

 

Exhibit A1.8
The APA Style of Referencing

The MLA Style

The MLA style is similar to the APA style in that both styles use parenthetical citations in the text. However, while APA citations provide the author name and year within parentheses, MLA citations provide the author name and the page details [for example: (Caney 25)]. The list of references at the end of the document is usually titled References in the APA style and Works Cited in the MLA style.

Exhibit A1.9 shows a few samples of the MLA style of works cited and in-text citations.

 

Exhibit A1.9
Works Cited in the MLA Style

The Chicago Style

The Chicago Manual of Style suggests two styles of documentation: (1) the documentary-note or humanities style, which may or may not be accompanied by a bibliography, and (2) the author–date system, where the in-text author–date citations are amplified in a list of references. The humanities style is popular in literature, history, and the arts and provides bibliographic citations in notes. The author–date system is popular in the physical, natural, and social sciences and humanities.

In this appendix, we shall discuss the humanities system. The Chicago humanities style uses either endnotes (at the bottom of the document) or footnotes (at the bottom of the page) for citations. As mentioned earlier, endnotes are usually preferred.

Notes are numbered in sequence, beginning with 1. The superscript numerals used for note references in the text are usually placed after punctuation marks, except in the case of dashes. Here are some examples:

 

Companies with reputations as good places to work (such as the companies that are included among the ‘100 Best Companies to Work for in America’) have been found to generate superior financial performance.¹

These findings were published in Personnel Psychology²—and have since been substantiated by many other studies.

The superscripts guide the reader to the source details given in the endnotes (or footnotes). Exhibit A1.10 presents some sample endnotes in the Chicago humanities style.

 

Exhibit A1.10
Endnotes in the Chicago Humanities Style

EndnotES

1. Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation (London: Profile Books, 2003).
2. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
3. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Delhi: Pearson, 2009).
4. Autobiography (England: Penguin Books, 2007), p. 263.