chapter 10

SOCIAL RESEARCH

Research is the core aspect of all social sciences. Social sciences are a very important area of interest to human beings, because the multitude impact of results is obtained from each social research. It paves a way to create a more humane society in which human beings can interact in a more refined and tasteful manner. According to Albert Einstein, “Politics is more difficult than physics and the world is more likely to die from bad politics than from bad physics”.

Human culture is highly inter-dependent with human society. One thing in life can and will lead on to another; a single mistake may cause many problems in social environment. Today, social research is very vast and complex. It can be divided into subfields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, economics, political science, geography, history, education, demography and so on (Fig. 10.1). Research activities are needed in the social science subjects for creating new knowledge in these fields.

Some of the basic definitions from sociologist are as follows:

According to C.A. Moser: “Social research is a systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomenon and problems.”

According to P.V. Young: “Social research is a scientific undertaking which by means of logical methods, aim to discover new facts or old facts and to analyse their sequences, interrelationships, casual explanations and natural laws which govern them.”

10.1 THEORY OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Social science research is a systematic method that explores human life to extend the human knowledge and behaviour. The research clarifies doubts by seeking explanations in unexplained area of interest. There are scientific methods to understand social life in order to correct or verify the knowledge of the system. Human behaviour bounds to certain laws and values. One of the major purposes of social research is to discover those laws and gives proper guidelines to human.

10.1.1 Social Research Characteristics

The following are the characteristics of social research:

• A direct solution to the problem is given with an ultimate goal that discovers cause-and-effect relationship between social problems.
• To predict future occurrences, a generalized principles or theories are emphasized.
• The observable experience or empirical evidence is basic core of the research.
• Social research stress precise observations and description.
• Social researchers can choose non-qualitative description of observations that they had prepared.
• New data can be gathered from primary source or use existence data for new purpose.
• The activities in social research may be random and unsystematic. It is carefully designed procedure that can be applied for analysis.
• A variety of expertise is required in the social research. Researcher must be aware of the problem, what is already known and how others investigated the same problems.
• Researcher must strive to apply every possible test to validate the procedure employed, data collected and conclusion reached.
• Researcher must involve to answer unsolved problems.
• Researcher must be patient and unhurried activity. They can expect dissatisfaction, disappointment and discouragement while facing the difficult questions.
• A careful reporting and recoding is very much essential. Definition of terms, variables, theories and procedures are important and should be documented in detail that will be helpful in drawing conclusions. Presenting and writing the report may be helpful while careful documentation has been done from the beginning of the research work.
• Most of the time, social researchers are seen interdisciplinary and need sometimes courage in selecting topics.

10.1.2 Scope of Social Research

A question always arises in our mind “What is the scope of social research? The basic scope of social research is clear that it is a scientific tool to study and analyze social problems with certain values. Scope of social research includes correct understanding of the nature of social events, processes and thoughts.

1. Knowledge formation

   Generally, a corpus of knowledge is the output of any research. The social researchers also generate new knowledge. The new knowledge helps to bridge the gap between ignorance and knowledge. One major way by which knowledge can be obtained is through observation and experience. For example, we know that the traffic will be on peak during the office hours, morning and evening. This knowledge comes merely from the experience and observation. Similarly, all sorts of research draw to a conclusion, which is knowledge.

2. Study of social problem

   Studying social problem generates knowledge. When knowledge is created, it eradicates the disbeliefs and provides a screen of logical reasoning with facts. For example, there are various superstitious beliefs such as the number 13 is unlucky and many apartments and hotels omit the 13th floor, and some planes do have 13th row. But the logic behind this was unknown to many. But it required many historical and religious social researchers to find an answer to this. The most accepted belief is the one put forward by Christian religious researchers that there were 13 guests at the Last Supper of Jesus Christ and thus they believed 13 will bring evil luck. Acceptance of this fact is truly up to the readers, but the facts put forward was as a result of their research.

   Thus, the study on social problems removes the curtain of ignorance. The key to the solution of social problems is their accurate and unbiased analysis and thereby understanding the causal factors responsible for them.

3. Theory and policy making

   The knowledge generated from the study of social problems can be extended to make theoretical and practical theories and policies. There will be many elements obtained during a particular study. The researchers may find some interesting link between them and will generate a theory. All sorts of theories thus created will not be acceptable; they need to be proved with some logic and a strong background. If such background exists, then it can be used to create valid policies for future references.

   As Karl Jespers said, “It is only when using methodologically classified sciences that we know what we know & what we do not know”. This way, theory constitutes a crucially important guide to design fruitful research.

10.1.3 Objectives of Social Research

Social research focusses a variety of fields and subfields. The major objective of social research is human understanding. We can broadly specify the objectives as follows:

• Knowledge gathering about social phenomena, events, issues and problems.
• Functional relationship identification in the social environment.
• Natural law identification in the social phenomena that represent social behaviour.
• Standardization of social concepts, culture, struggle, generation gap, social distance, social ethics, etc.
• Identify solutions to social problem.
• Optimized concept of social tension, misconception, etc.
• Revival plan making with respect to social problems.

10.2 PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Social phenomena are analyzed by the sociologist in different levels and with different view. To obtain a generalization of society and social behaviour, they study things in micro and macro levels. “A big picture” is given in macro analysis while a small social pattern will be the outcome of a micro-level analysis. With micro-level analysis, the symbolic interactions such as use of symbols and face-to-face interactions are done. In micro level, the relationship between the parts of society and the functional aspect of the society is taken into account. The conflict theory from various resources is taken from a wide range of sociological patterns. Sociological perspectives are given in Fig. 10.2.

Symbolic interaction

The symbolic interaction perspective directs a sociologist to consider a detailed study of the social symbols like how people interact, what change in the society brings a considerable change in the life style, etc. For example, in music, the musical notes will be given in some symbols such as dark dotes or dark lines of some particular shape. This may be seen as a musical note for those people who know that particular musical knowledge. Others may find it very difficult to find and seek the meaning.

Case Study

How to apply symbolic interaction to Christian marriage functions? In this case, symbols may include wedding bands, vows of life-long commitments, music and flowers, white bridal dress, wedding cake, Christian ceremony, etc.

People get attached to these symbols but individuals maintain their own perceptions. For example, the spouses think about the ring as a never-ending symbol of love, while others may think about the financial expense and so on.

Functionalism

In functionalism, the society is seen as independent and contributes to the society as a whole. The education is a provision by the state government to the children, which is a functional perspective. Each family depends on schools to help their children to learn and make them socially fit and to latter support their family. The functionalism depends on the functional blocks. For example, during the financial recession with higher unemployment and inflation families cut down the expenses.

Conflict theory

The conflict perspective originated on the class struggles between the functionalist and the symbolic interaction perspectives. The society contributes to its stability through a negative conflict perspective. The conflict theory perspective sees social life as a competition with explanation of social changes. According to Karl Marx, societies reveal natural sources of conflict and tension.

Case Study

The Ajanta and Ellora Caves in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra have about 60 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments, which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. The caves include paintings and sculptures. The social researchers who visit the caves will have different perspectives. Someone who does research in ancient paintings will be curious on the type of materials used for painting, how well the spread was done and so on. But from the view point of an archaeologist, he/she will be interested in examining the caves, old objects to study the past culture. It will be the kind of financial benefit that the government makes from these will be of top priority to some economist who visits the area. Thus, perspectives differ but ultimately knowledge is produced in one or the other way.

10.2.1 Complementary Perspectives

The theoretical paradigms that were used by the sociologist have different models to describe and understand human behaviour. A popular and understandable paradigm focussed to social research is given in Fig. 10.3.

These perspectives are limited in the ability to describe the society and its behaviour. In animal kingdom, humans play an important role. The cross-species perspective considers similarities and differences of human behaviour in the society. A valuable insight is given into the nature of human society.

The cross-cultural perspective addresses cultural differences and issues within the society of human beings. Research and investigations determine that the practice, beliefs and values are considerably from different cultures. For example, cultural differences between Africans and Europeans. The comparative study in standard behaviour within a system is a major concern of cross-cultural perspective.

In statistical perspective, frequency of occurrences of an attribute or practice of the society is seen. A statistical measurement can be fit into these studies. For example, surveys are conducted in societies like average member characteristics.

The historical perspective deals with social issues from a historical aspect, values and contexts. In many complex issues, the easier backlog can be examined and can be analyzed its roles played in the history.

Human beings are religious and considered spirituality on individual and society. They are organized in teaching morals, set values based on the religious environment.

Feminist perspective is concerned with gender differences and with selected limitations associated with it. The major theory is associated with male dominant society. Feminist claims that their insight is equal to that of males.

10.3 METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Basic methods of scientific and engineering research are systematic and procedure oriented. In social research, the procedures are more important than in physical or in natural sciences. The social scientists observe, classify and analyze the facts and make some generalizations and then develop a test hypothesis to explain how these generalizations are made. Compared to physical scientists, the problems here are more difficult. Such problems are very difficult to interpret and classify. Also, the generalizations made or developing of laws by a social scientist is less definite than a physical scientist. There are many difficulties in discovering exact laws, some of which are given as follows:

1. Important things in social life such as satisfaction, social progress, democracy and so on cannot be measured.
2. The society we live in is very complex. So it is very difficult and almost impossible to evaluate.
3. A human element (leader) is involved in all social issues. So, the issues and impacts cannot be predicted.

For example, a physical scientist may discover a new source of electricity. He/She may develop a new invention to make electricity or a new equipment that works in electrical power. It is the social scientist who identifies the impact of this invention in the society. He/She may conduct studies in different societies about the impact of this newly developed equipment or procedure. Both researches are different but equally important. Compared to the first, the second one may prove more difficult.

The social scientist is far fewer in number than the natural/physical scientist because they are forced to discard their likes, dislikes, sympathies and views in the name of work. The signature of research is difficult for a social scientist when compared to a natural scientist. Also, there is no ideal structure in conducting a research in the area of social sciences. A reasonable approach to a social science problem is given in the following:

1. Observation
2. Problem definition
3. Literature review
4. More on observation
5. Theoretical framework definition and hypothesis formation
6. Research design selection
7. Data collection
8. Result analysis and discussion
9. Conclusion/suggestion

By following the above given methods, social research can extract the methodology contained in each field in detail. Observation is the understanding of the real world. The observations of socially committed problems can identify areas where future research is needed. In the problem definition, the terms that are used in research work should be carefully defined. This will save much energy and time. Selection of the topic may raise some fundamental issues that could find some values or tips to research. Literature review is a major task for every social researcher. A proper literature review provides a knowledgeable background and suggests what was already covered and served for redesign. In the next step, a framework can be formulated for predicting the result. The framework may be a theory that is based on methodology which can help in formulating a hypothesis. If the predicted result and clarification terms are within the framework of research, there may be a scope of discussion. For example, suppose a hypothesis is “high price interests sales on fashionable dress”. How do you specify what “high” is? How do you compare specification of price? Do we have low-priced fashionable dress available in the market? What you mean by fashionable? Such questions need to be answered by different researchers. These terms are different with respect to each researcher.

Research design is an important step for a social researcher. Selection of correct design for data collection is needed as it influences further results. Researcher should have a clear observation as the conclusions made from the results depend on the collected data. So, extreme care is required while preparing the collected data, its selection and use. The next step is result analysis; this must classify the facts, identify the trends and should tabulate the information derived from the data. The result interpretation is a key objective because debates may occur while the researcher suggests a wrong proposal. The hypothesis is then confirmed by result analysis. After the result analysis, selected hypothesis may be modified depending on the discussions and debates made. Even an unanswered question during a debate can change the entire focus of the research.

In natural science research, the above steps are slightly different. Here, it primarily focusses on the testing of hypothesis by controlled experiments. Such experiments are normally conducted under regulated conditions. In social research, these types of controlled experiments are very difficult to construct.

10.4 SOCIAL SCIENCE APPROACHES

A social scientist uses many approaches and methods while they study problems. Even alternative approaches and methods are used to solve a social science problem. In alternative approaches, the scientist analyzes the problem that reflects his/her view point. There are four different theoretical approaches and three alternate approaches in the social science research (Fig. 10.4).

1. Functional theory

   This approach emphasizes interconnection between social life and society policy. Social judgements are suggested based on function life theory with social conditions.

2. Exchange theory

   It is closely related to functional approaches with voluntary exchange of individual choice. This reflects personal desires in a society. Due to dysfunctional elements, society may get upset at times.

3. Conflict theory

   It has a less harmony than the exchange theory approach. It shows social behaviour in terms of conflict and tension among the selected groups. Major difference between exchange theory and conflict theory approaches is the fancy of individual and groups.

4. Symbolic interaction theory

   The individual can derive inferences from symbols or its form. It reflects what people do and more on what they think and feel.

10.4.1 Alternative Approaches

In alternative methods, social scientist can use different methods. Historical methods can be used to compare cross-cultural methods.

1. Historical method

   In order to understand the background of a particular subject of interest, historical methods are suitable. A complete understanding of historical situations may not be possible because of the complexity of historical knowledge. Tracing the major developments of the past that is important under our current study also comes under historical method. A historian traces the past events and uses some relevant methods to obtain knowledge.

2. Case method

   A social scientist devotes much of his/her time to deal cases that vary based on situations. Case method deals with detailed analysis and examination of a particular issue or problem. Sociologists study key changes in situations and then compare each of them to infer new knowledge. A case study is intended to discover how to bring desirable changes for a particular problem. For example, a researcher would like to study problems in migrant labours from other states. Selected case studies will help to throw light on many similar situations that exist in the society. But selection of the cases is important as a wrong candidate can mislead the researcher.

3. Comparative and cross-cultural method

   Comparison is a common human behaviour. It may discover some sequential facts but comparison of different societies plays an important role in natural sciences. This is called cross-cultural method. It can be used in studies related to social patterns that compare different people in different ways. One of the major threats in comparison to societies is that it can create personal grudges.

10.4.2 Interdisciplinary Approaches

Modern industries have many complex problems in their daily processes. These problems are not only depending on a single subject or even we cannot solve such complex problems within a limited knowledge. In this circumstance, people from different areas work together for a solution. For example, in a chemical factory, role of a chemist and a computer specialist is to work together to solve a problem. Such areas are called interdisciplinary research area. Today, research grows into interdisciplinary areas such as bioinformatics, cheminformatics, geoinformatics, mechatronics, robotics and so on. The research person from different societies is not master in all subjects; growing emphasis is placed on the interdisciplinary approach to many social problems. The interdisciplinary subject in social science means a group of social scientists with different specialties will work together on certain problem. In this case, all of these researchers may not know fully about the entire problem or its solutions. For example, in an environmental problem, it may be necessary to call in, a physical scientist, a geologist and a civil engineer.

10.4.3 Role of Statistics

When a social scientist relies on quantitative data or data that can be converted into numeric, then he/she comes across various quantitative methods such as interviews, questionnaire and so on. Any of these methods can be used in his/her research for data collection. In order to analyze these data, a social researcher uses some statistical methods. For a qualitative data, it is more difficult to make conclusions using statistical methods. This is due to the interpretation differences in the “facts” discovered by researchers.

Based on the availability of the quantitative data, social scientist creates information by statistical analysis. They can be classified and can identify social relationship and processes. The statistical relationships give social problems a simple interpretation. Testing theories and discovering relationships are the selected functions that use statistical measures. For example, two datasets can be related through correlation. A high correlation means an element in one set is highly influenced by another.

The data collection methods may be interviews or questionnaire. For example, a health survey that gives public opinion polls regarding the cancer disease is shown in Fig. 10.5. The use of statistics been greatly facilitated by the use of computers by recording, arranging and calculating the voluminous information.

10.5 SOCIAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Many methods have been adopted by sociologist to study the social behaviour of the society. There are many models used in the social research design. They fall into the following category:

Cross-sectional: Select a group of individual of different ages with same or different characteristics of interests. The scientist takes these groups for the study at a single time.

Longitudinal: For a specified time, the scientist selects a group of individuals (mentioned above) for their study.

Cross-sequential: Scientist test individuals from the above cross-sectional population for more than once at a period of time.

The social research design cycle starts by defining the problem. Figure 10.6 gives the design steps involved in the social research. The problem can be well defined only if the researcher has a good observation skill. Quick learning and interpretation skills are necessary for a good researcher to define a problem through observation. Defining the problem is a cleaver task; the researcher needs to explain the background in which this problem is valid. He/She also requires to convince the audience about the importance of the problem. A clearly stated problem alone can make the research to get forward.

Once the problem is defined, the researcher needs to do an extensive literature review. He/She should learn the current areas of development in his/her field and the works that has performed so far. Only a good literature study increases the knowledge in the particular area. Many a times they open up new space for the research.

As and when you have finished quite a reasonable literature survey, you may have mastered some field in the area. Now you need to formulate a hypothesis that can be tested against some valid theories. The hypothesis developed needs to be in accordance to the problem which was stated earlier. Generalized hypothesis developed may change in time when some real datasets/events are included to make the hypothesis specific.

The next step is the acting phase of the research. So far you have a well-defined problem, a really good backup of literature and some specific or generalized hypothesis. Now you need to select a research design process and should analyze the data. For example, a social researcher doing research in the area of health issues related to children under the age of 14. First, he/she should find the areas where this problem is most severe. Then an extensive hard work needs to be done to get the background of such children, such as the family condition, job of parents, the surroundings, medical care centres nearby, vaccination details and so on. From all these data and observations, he/she should come up with a valid reason and should suggest ways to eradicate the same. As a social researcher, this phase is the most important one, as his/her results are going straight to the society and this is used for future works.

Generating a conclusion from the work is a tedious task; the conclusions should be apt, short, simple and should convey the correct meaning. The conclusions should be so derived from the observation that each and every item mentioned is self-explainable, as the audience to this varies from place to place and time to time. Work also should throw light for the future expansions possible which can add more glory to your research problem.

10.6 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH

Qualitative research is a broad term of research with a variety of approaches. The qualitative research spreads to historical, sociological, education, etc. There are different styles in qualitative research and not much related to scientific logic. People’s idea, attitude, motives and intentions are selected in the research. Perspectives of social research fall under qualitative one.

In the quantitative research, primary goal is to understand social processes rather than representative samples. This may feel lengthy period of time. The in-depth interviews, questionnaires, observations, etc. are the characteristics of quantitative research. According to Hammersley (1993)¹, quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.

10.6.1 Quantitative Research Methods

“The team quantitative method refers in large part to the adoption of the natural science experiments as the model for scientific research, its key features being quantitative measurement of the phenomena studied and systematic control of the theoretical variables influencing those phenomena”. Quantitative approach relies on a great deal on quantitative (statistical) data in the form of numbers collected through empirical observation or from statistical digests. Chapter 3 details basic quantitative data collection methods used in research. A typical example of a quantitative research is a simple survey by some experimental methods and thereby drawing conclusions.

The quantitative social research may have the following characteristics:

• Data collection is a major concern and is done by standard approaches.
• Use casual relationships between variables after selecting.
• Prepare a hypothesis and use appropriate test statistics.
• The pre-conceptualization in this research may have high degree.
• Selected theories are adopted through the research.
• The research is carried out using reliable settings.
• A detailed description of personal behaviour and thought are major objectives.
• The focus may frequently change due to the theories involved rather than theory testing.
• The research designs are small compared to quantitative research.
• The data collection may be very simple (e.g., one-to-one interviews).

Major strengths of the quantitative research methods are as follows:

• Based on the theories, testing and validation are constructed.
• Hypothesis testing is based on prior data collection.
• Based on sufficient random samples, a generalized research finding is arrived.
• With different populations and sub-populations, a generalized research finding is arrived.
• A quantitative and useful prediction from a dataset.
• Establish cause-effective relationship with credible establishment by the influence of many variables.
• Quantitative data collection methods such as questionnaire or interviews are used.
• Research uses precise, quantitative and numerical data.
• A less time-consuming data analytics by the use of statistical software.
• The obtained results are relatively independent of the researcher.
• Research study is in a large number of people.

10.6.2 Qualitative Research Methods

The major qualitative research methods are shown in Fig. 10.7.

1. Case study

   In qualitative research methods, case studies play an important role. A social scientist needs to understand how case studies are important in research design. The case studies are not a data collection method but research strategy. Case studies offer hypothesis for future research and helps to establish generalization and general findings.

   

   Fig. 10.7 Qualitative research methods

2. Content analysis

   Language is the major communication medium of human that contains emotions, knowledge attitudes and values. There are many communication channels, which convey these ideas such as televisions, radio, movie etc. Contents analysis is a method in social research which is focused at the qualitative document analysis. According to Berelson (1952) “Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication”.

   The major characteristics of contents analysis are

   • Objectivity
   • Systematic
   • Generality
   • Quantification

   There are five major types of contents analysis,

   1. Word counting analysis
   2. Conceptual analysis
   3. Semantic analysis
   4. Evaluative assertion analysis
   5. Contextual analysis

   The contents analysis is a direct responding method. It is a highly useful method in historical research. A variety of cultural studies can be done as the part of social research. Hypothesis formulation, idea testing and theories are part of the contents analysis. Powerful social values are its key while a research is focused with small resources.

3. Narrative method

   One of the constructive methods used in social research that describes sequential non-fictional or fictional events is the narrative method. It is similar to case study method in the social science. Narration uncovers more interesting and useful social theories and social policies. Social scientist gives narrative case studies expressed in terms of policies and facts. Narrative study is one of the movements in social science research that becomes quantitative nature. The narrative method becomes an analysis tool in the field of cognitive science, knowledge theory, sociology, education, organizational studies, etc.

4. Focussed group interview

   This is one of the quantitative research methods used to select opinions, beliefs, attitudes and concept ideas from group members. Focus group interviews and discussions usually take one or two hours with 6–12 people. Open-ended questions are created and are used to discover general reactions. These reactions are recorded for a wide range of information gathering. This quantitative method is helpful in conjunction with surveys.

   Focussed interviews involve organized discussion of a selected group of individuals to information gain in their view points. About the same topic of interest, it gives several perspectives with shared understanding. A moderator plays a key role in the focussed interview and arranges focus points. A feedback is obtained with insight interaction among the groups of different users who are involved in the interview. Compared to other methods focussed interviews are relatively cheap.

10.6.3 Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

A comparative study between quantitative and qualitative research is given in Table 10.1.

 

10.6.4 Social Surveys

Social surveys are techniques used in sociology and related research areas. It is a systematic information gathering technique used in qualitative research. The analysis and drawn conclusions are key elements of output in social surveys. For example, National census is one of the biggest social surveys with a high number of populations. There are numerous data which is being collected in the national population. Basically, social surveys connected with formation of social reforms produce significant change in the society. According to Duncan Mitchell’s dictionary, “the social survey is a systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific geographic, cultural or administrative area”.

There are scientific steps for conducting a social survey and formulate final report. They are as follows:

1. General objective (problem statement).
2. Specific objectives
3. Sample selection (both universe and design simple)
4. Prepare questionnaire
5. Selected field work
6. Coding of data and its tabulation
7. Data analysis and report preparation

There are many limitations in the social surveys. Initially, the sample error may cause problems in the total results. Also another problem is in difficulty in error measurement. There are certain limitations in this questionnaire such as length and topics covered. Population and sample design are other limitations of these social surveys. The population may be localized and needs adequate representation for those samples.

10.7 ETHICS AND POLITICS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

The students gather ethics and make their decisions from many ways. This may be from mentor, advisor, fellow student, family, friends, religious beliefs, faculty, seminars, professional organizations or from courses. Research ethics may be divided into two parts: sharing scientific knowledge and laboratory practice. The objective of research is to extend human knowledge. The generated knowledge should be shared to others. The sharing of knowledge can be through publications, presentations and thesis. Scientific publication is an individual or teams effort. The authors will get accountability and credit while publishing. Policies of scientific journals state that the authorship of a paper depends on the direct and substantial intellectual contribution of the author. The contribution may be in design, interpretation or drafting the research or paper, otherwise acknowledgement can be given to the persons who have indirectly contributed to this work. The following are author responsibilities while preparing and submitting manuscripts:

1. Author should ensure that the work is new and should be original research.
2. All authors listed in the publication must be aware of submission and agree with the content.
3. Author should provide copy of related works submitted or published elsewhere.
4. Anonymous reviewers may or may not review the article, which must be agreed upon by all authors.
5. If figures or tables are not produced as new, obtain copyright permission before submission.
6. Affiliation must be correct and need to be included in the paper.

10.7.1 Principles in Research Ethics

Academicians airing caution about ethical dilemmas that they faced in research work and advise their students and colleagues on issues of ethical requirements. The ethical requirements focus on meeting with professionals, conduct meeting with participants, supervise and teach students and give authorship.

1. Open discussion in intellectual property

   Most of the time faculty or supervisors will not give much importance to the students who did some relevant work they have furnished. An open discussion will help them to make a correct view in the intellectual properties of their work and need a credit from their supervisor. One of the common ethics is that give publication credit after the discussion with the students or who is associated with the research work. According to American psychological association, “Minor contributions to the research or to the writing for publications are acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or in an introductory statement.” This may be applicable to the students who contribute substantively to the proposed research work in conceptualization, design, execution, analysis or interpretation. They should be listed as authors. A primary contribution need not require warrant authorship, they need to acknowledge in the publication.

2. Conscious in multiple roles

   A careful mind is required while a researcher gives multiple roles in collaboration with a person or research group. These include in participating the research work recruiting students or clients, investigating the effectiveness of a product of a company, role in laboratory procedures, etc. For example, if computer scientist designs a software tool in molecular biology application for a biology lab, the idea of conceptualization, design and coding is his/her part and the biological procedure is the biologist part. After completion of the work, it should be in a writing form for the publication. Again the computer scientist may have a role in writing the work. If the collaboration is not proper, the publication may be a solo from the biological laboratory and the computer scientist may feel cheated. There are required combined meetings, discussions and records for a celebrated work. This is also an ethical issue while visualizing a combined work in a different entity.

3. Follow informed-consent rules

   A consent process ensures that persons are willingly participating in the research with full knowledge of applicable risks and payback. A researcher who conducts research work should focus to certain ethical codes:

   • Identify the purpose of research and expected duration and procedures.
   • Anticipated consequence in participants’ rights to refuse to participate and to withdraw from the research once it has started.
   • Consider reasonable factors that may influence a willingness of participation with potential risks uneasiness or adverse effects.
   • Identify perspectives of research benefits.
   • Identify limits in confidentiality of data coding, data disposal, data sharing and archiving. Identify when these confidentiality can be broken.
   • Provide incentives for participation.

   In experimental treatment of research, specific mandates should be included for the researchers. It must be noted that how participants are assigned to treatments and control the experimental group, alternative compensation or monetary costs of participation.

4. Privacy and confidentiality

   The expert says that the researcher needs to ask participants who are willing to talk sensitive topics in research. They conduct interview questions so that participants can stop if they feel uncomfortable. The research participants have a freedom to choose about the information selection and they reveal the circumstances and must be careful about selection of participants in their study.

   Practical security measures: Confidential records are stored in secured area with privileged access and identify information. Confidential measures are taken for the researcher point of view from the public.

   Data sharing before research begins: Purification of data is one of the clarity researches. A peer group can verify the collected data before processing and draw any conclusions. This should be very clear because of the ethics in research, to avoid duplication and scrutiny of the required. While data sharing, the researcher should use established techniques when possible to protect confidentiality, such as coding data to hide identities.

   Limits of the internet: Continuous evolution of web results in knowledge net for all researchers. The researchers depend on the internet as resource of their literature review. Can we fully trust internet resources in our research work? Many limitations are there across the internet

5. Record ethics resources

   Researchers should avoid and resolve ethical dilemmas with knowledge of their available resources and its use. Researchers help themselves in the ethical issues and keep track on record how they are maintaining. Recording of their research work includes keeping a research diary and monthly meeting schedules. The research diary is one of the recorded materials for any of the researcher for later arguments related to his/her work. The peer group can make internal presentations and make it as a record.

10.7.2 Politics in Research

“Social research” can be summed up as research in any field of social sciences. An empirical evidence and analysis to understand and explain the nature of human behaviour are major perspectives of the social research. It also provides analysis and understanding of social structures and cultures, as well as the social impacts of issues such as government policies. Political representatives, media, academics and boniness policies are selected choices of the policy makers in social research. This will help, understand and manage the risk associated with the choices, which are cried out in public bodies, universities, colleges or even in special research organizations.

The research related to politics is not termed as “political research” but referred to as “political” like political party. It is more specific and varied from the social research.

EXERCISES

1. What is social research? Discuss its differences with scientific research.
2. What are the principal sources of literature for social research?
3. Explain the role of internet in social research.
4. Explain various survey techniques used in social science research.
5. What are the roles of statistics in social research?
6. Differentiate between “politics” and “political research”.
7. Explain the various fields in social science.
8. List out characteristics of social research.
9. What are the various paradigms of social research? Explain.
10. Explain the various scopes of social research.
11. What are social surveys? Explain its difference between questionnaires.
12. How knowledge is formed in social research?
13. What is historical research?
14. What is symbolic interaction?
15. What are complementary perspectives?
16. Discuss various social research approaches.
17. Explain the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods.
18. What are the characteristics of quantitative social research?
19. What are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative social research?
20. Explain various qualitative research methods.
21. Explain contents analysis. How it is suitable in social research?
22. Explain five principles in social research ethics.