Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively.

A

Acetaldehyde (Ac), 145
in PSA systems, 188–190
steam regeneration, 187–188
structural difference with platelet GN, 144f
Adsorption, 179–182, 182, 185–186, 190
of fibers, 126
Alkenes, 155
hydrogenation, 155–156
α,β-unsaturated aldehydes hydrogenation, 155–156
α,β-unsaturated molecules hydrogenation, 156
Amines, 108
Amorphous graphite, 13, 136–137
Anaerobic digester (AD) gas, 42, 59–60
Applications, 26
catalysis, 141–168
of CNTs, 33
commercial, 28–29
drilling fluids, 195–200
electronic, 2–3
gas purification, 185–190
of graphene, 3–4
heat transfer, 191–195
Li-ion batteries, 136–141
lubrication, 191–195
niche, 24
polymer additives, 121–135
wastewater treatment, 168–185
water, 168–185
Arc Discharge method, 64
Armchair, 5
atomic spacing along, 6f
configuration, 30
edges, 5f, 7, 7–8, 136–137
faces, 5, 21
structure, 27–28, 28f, 30
Arsenic (As), 176
adsorbents, 185–186
removal, 177–178
As-synthesized GO-COOH-CuS nanocomposite, 108
Atomic spacing along armchair, 6f

B

Bacillus subtilis, 108
Back diffusion, 142–143, 171
Benzene, liquid phase hydrogenation of, 157
Bicarbonates (CBM), 149–150
desulfurization, 187
sources, 42, 60–61
Biomass
FBRs for gasification, 72
small volume generators, 62–63
Bond dissociation energy (BDE), 7–8, 9
Bond energy, 15f, 15f, 15f
Brine stream, 182–183
Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) technique, 17–18
Butyl methacrylate (BA), 125

C

Calgon carbon, 188
Capacitive deionization (CDI), 182–183, 183f
cell formats, 184
electrode materials, 184–185
MCDI, 183
modes of operation, 183–184
Carbide equilibrium model, 53, 54
Carbon, 1
See also Graphite, Graphene
atom, 1
edge sites, 3–12
atomic spacing along armchair, 6f
direction cuts across graphene plane, 4f
importance of edge to graphene sheet, 3–4
surface energy, 10–12
zigzag and armchair, 5f
zigzag-edged GNR, 9
electronic structure, 1–3
Carbon monoxide (CO), 17, 19, 59–60, 150–151
Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), 37, 48, 121–122, 125
Carbon nanoplate (CNP), 48, 49–52
Carbon nanorod (CNR), 48, 49, 49–52
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 27–34, 83
characteristics of GNs, 33–34
chirality, 27–28, 28
configurations, 27–29
electrical properties, 29–31
purification, 31–33
similarities to GN, 34
Carbon oxy sulfide (COS), 32–33
Carbonaceous catalyst, 187
Carbonaceous nanomaterials, 70, 109–110, 127, 168–169, 195
See also Graphite, Graphitic nanofibers (GNs)
Carbon–oxygen surface functional groups, 18
Carboxylated graphene oxide, 108
Carboxylic groups, 19–20, 108
Catalysis, 47–48, 141–168, 167
dehydrogenation, 159–166
development of novel industrial catalysts, 142–143
FT synthesis with Cobalt catalyst, 149–154
fuel cell electrodes, 166–168
graphitic nanofiber, 143
graphitic nanofiber, application for, 141–142
hydrogenation reactions, 154–159
oxidation of ethylene to ethylene oxide, 144–149
structural difference between activated carbon and platelet GN, 144f
Catalyst carriers, GN as, 110
Catalysts, 41, 41–48, 110
catalysis, 47–48
formulations, 42–47
catalytic properties and yields of GN, 46t
conversion rates and time online, 47f
single and multiple fiber growth, 45f
particle characteristics
agglomeration, 69–71, 71f
dynamic changes in size and volume, 68
fluid–particle drag force, 68
Catalytic Cracking Unit, 64
Catalytic dehydrogenation
of alkanes, 159–160
of ethylbenzene, 160
Catalytic remediation, gas purification, 186–188
Cell formats, 184
Cellulose triacetate (CTA), 172
Centaur, 188
Chelates, 108
Chelating resins, 176
Chemical bonding, 1, 79–80
Chemical potential of carbon atom, 9–10
Chiral structure of CNTs, 27–28, 28f
Chitosan (Ch), 115–116, 179–180
Cinnamaldehyde to hydrocinnamaldehyde, 156–157
Claus process, 187
Coal gasification process, 62–63
Coal seams (CSM), 149–150
Coal to liquid plants (CTL), 151
Cocatalyst carriers, GN, 110
Commodities, 88, 194t
Composite
chitin–GO, 179–180
GN—PMMA, 114
GN—polyimide, 114–115
GN—PU, 112–114
plastic, 3–4
polypropylene/graphite, 5
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 59–60, 60–61
Condensation reaction, 117, 118f
Conventional static rotating reactor, 79
Cost-to-benefit model, 26
Covalent bonding, 110–112
Cp2MCl2, 110
Crystalline graphite (CG), 13, 143–144
nanostructured, 191
Cu-Ni-Al2O3 catalysts, 44
Cu-Ni-Mg catalysts, 43
Cyclohexane, 157
1,3-Cyclohexanedione, 118

D

Dangling bonds, 3, 5–7, 22
closing, 39–40
in edge sites of graphene, 10
energy, 10
Dehydrogenation, 159–166
See also Hydrogenation reactions
Deionized water (DI water), 169–170, 191
Desalination, 172, 174, 176
FO/hydrogel combination, 173–174
hygroscopic nature of hydrogel, 172
industry, 168
plants, 168
plants, 168
reverse osmosis, 168
N,N0 Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), 115
Diesel, vegetable oils to drop in, 158–159
Diffusion zone, 182, 183, 183–184
Dilute acetic acid, 107–108
4-Dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP), 115
4,40-Diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI), 112–114, 113f
Dirac equation, 23–24
Dispersion, 70, 79–80, 110, 114–115
forces, 188–190
GN and, 157
in polymer matrix of graphitic product, 122
Double Wall carbon nanotube (DWCNT), 27
Drilling fluids (DFs), 150, 195–200
environmental motivation, 198–199
graphite, 193
Drilling muds, 195, 199–200

E

Edge sites of carbon, 3–12
atomic spacing along armchair, 6f
direction cuts across graphene plane, 4f
edge importance to graphene sheet, 3–4
surface energy, 10–12
zigzag and armchair, 5f
zigzag-edged GNR, 9
Electric swing adsorption (ESA), 190
Electrical double layers (EDLs), 182, 183
Electrical properties, CNTs, 29–31
metallic conductors, 30–31
semiconductors, 29
Electrode materials, 184–185
Electronic structure, 9
of Ag, 146–147
calculations on chemisorption of atomic oxygen, 146
carbon, 1–3
quantum mechanical effects, 141–142
Electrophilic reactions, 107
Electrostatic dissipation (ESD), 126, 127, 133
Eley–Rideal (ER) mechanism, 16, 16–17, 20–21
Emulsification, 89, 199–200
Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM), 152
Environmental motivation, 198–199
Escherichia coli, 108
Ester hydrolysis, 198–199
Esterification, 115
Ethyl benzene
Ethylene diamine group, 108
Ethylene glycol (EG), 145
Ethylene oxidation to EO with GN-supported Ag catalyst, 144–149
cost of producing GN, 147
electronic structure calculations, 146
intermediate in production of glycols and plastics, 145
unreacted ethylene, 148
Ethylene oxide (EO), 144–145
Euler equation, 69
Expanded graphite (EG), 35–36, 89, 89

F

FBCVDR technology, 75–76
Fermi energy, 2–3, 31
Fermi liquid, 31
“Fermi sea” of electrons, 31
Few-layer graphene (FLG), 24, 89
Fiber-matrix adhesion, 125
Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis, 149–150, 150, 151
with Cobalt catalyst, 149–154
capacity FT plants, 150
effect of catalyst particle size, 152
catalyst particles, 152–153
GN as catalyst substrate, 154
thermal effects, 152
Flake graphite, See Plate-like formation
Fluid loss additives, 196–197
Fluidized bed chemical vapor deposition (FBCVD) process, 64, 69–70, 74f
gravity, 77–79
once-through vertical configurations, 64–65
reactors, 32–33, 55, 67
static rotating FBCVD reactors, 79
Fluidized bed reactor (FBR), 64
with external solids separator, 72f
recirculating type, 73f
Fluid–particle drag force, 68
FO/Hyrdrogel systems, 174
Forward osmosis, 170, 175
Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) absorption, 123
Free fatty acid (FFA) content, 158–159
Friction coefficient (FC), 192–193
Fuel cells
electrodes, 166–168
gas diffusion layer, 167
Functionalization, 107–109
See also In situ polymerization
amine, 108
chelates, 108
metals incorporated, 108
sulfonation, 108–109
Functionalized graphite, 114, 114–115, 119
oxide, 116–117

G

γ-alumina, 143–144, 155–156, 156
Gas diffusion layer (GDL), 167
Gas purification
As adsorbents, 185–186
for catalytic remediation, 186–188
high-energy π-π bonding capability, 190
for separations, 188–190, 189t
Gas-phase oxidation, 17, 32–33
Glutaraldehyde, 115–116
Grafting, 115–119
“Graphene-enhanced” lubricants, 196–197
Graphene, 2–3, 14, 22–26, 88, 119
See also Carbon
applications, 23–24, 25–26
electron waves through graphene lattice, 23
form of, 23–24
large-scale manufacturing of, 26
making, 88–91
ScCO2, 90–91, 90f
sonication, 89, 93t
sheets, 4f, 5
Graphene Nano Rods (GNR), 7–8, 38–39
Graphene oxide (GO), 14, 34–37, 83, 83–85, 107, 119, 132, 196–197, 198t
GO-COOH-CuS, 108
GO-treated graphite flakes, 89
graphical depiction of graphite oxidation and GN oxidation, 36f
oxidation of graphite particles, 84f
platelet-type GN, 85f
Graphite, 3, 13–14
See also Carbon
electronic properties, 21
functionalization, 107–108
new bonding, 14
oxidation and functionalization, 14–21
oxide, 115
suspensions, 89
Graphite flakes GO, See Expanded graphite (EG)
Graphite nanoparticles, 110–112, 115–116
Graphitic carbon, 46
Graphitic nanofibers (GNs), 3–4, 16–17, 37–40, 41, 48, 59–60, 70, 83, 107, 122, 180, 181t
as catalyst carriers, 110
catalysts, 41–48
characteristics, 33–34
as cocatalyst carriers, 110
growth rates, 55–58, 57f
MD simulation of GN edges zipping, 39f
reaction mechanisms, 48–55
as SWNT and MWNT, 38–40
synthesis, 69
types, 38f
zipping, 40f
Gravity FBCVD, 77–79
fractal distributor, 78f
gravity flow reactor, 77f

H

H-bonding, 118, 124
HDPE composites, 133
Health effects, 79–81
Heat transfer, 191–192
data provided calculated costs and benefits, 192t
Heavy metal
carboxylic groups affinity, 108
removal, 176–177, 178t
Herringbone structures, 48, 50f, 180
Hexagonal graphene, 48
H-free carbene-like zigzag edges, 7
H-free dangling σ-bond zigzag edges, 7
High electron mobility transistors (HEMT), 24
High sensitivity low energy ion scattering (HS-LEIS), 152
High temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT) synthesis, 151
Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), 7, 13–14, 136–137, 141–142
High-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM), 48, 51f
Homogeneous catalyst, 109
Homogeneous chemical reactions, 89
Homogeneous Ziegler–Natta reaction, 110, 110
Hummers’ method, 84, 84–85, 84f, 107
Hydrocinnamaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde to, 156–157
Hydrogels, 171
chitosan cross-linking, 117f
constituting group of polymeric materials, 171
function in critical phase region, 171
with lower LCST, 116–117
strength, 172–173
thermo sensitive reversible, 175
types, 171
Hydrogen bond, 122, 123
Hydrogen bonding, 109–110, 122, 128f
with polyimides, 132f
Hydrogenation reactions, 154–159
of alkenes and α, β-unsaturated aldehydes, 155–156
of α,β-unsaturated molecules on GN, 156
cinnamaldehyde to hydrocinnamaldehyde, 156–157
liquid phase hydrogenation of benzene, 157
pyrolysis oils, 157–158
vegetable oils to drop in diesel, 158–159
Hydrophilic functional groups, 169–170

I

In situ polymerization, 109, 109–119, 112f, 113f
See also Functionalization
composite
GN—poly (methyl methacrylate), 114
GN—polyimide, 114–115
GN—polyurethrane, 112–114
GN, as catalyst carriers/cocatalyst carriers, 110
grafting, 115–119
homogeneous Ziegler–Natta reaction, 110
nonaqueous solvents, 110–119
In-plane σ-bonds in sp2-hybridized carbon, 2–3
Internal combustion engines (ICEs), 61–62
Invert-emulsion systems, 195–196
Ionic contaminant removal, 176–177
Iron, 42–43, 187
catalysts, 150, 151
oxides, 160, 177–178
N-Isopropylacrylamide, 172

K

Kozeny–Carman relationship, 66

L

Landfill gas (LFG), 42, 59–60, 60–61, 61, 62–63, 62f, 88
Langmuir–Hinshelwood (LH) mechanism, 16
Large flake GO (LFGO), 196–197
Lenard-Jones (LJ) model, 70–71
Lewis acid, 110
Liquefaction, 59–60
Liquid phase hydrogenation
of benzene, 157
of cinnamaldehyde to hydrocinnamaldehyde, 156
Liquid-phase oxidation, 32
Liquified natural gas (LNG), 149–150
Lithium-ion batteries, 136
grade graphite, 140
graphite edges with SEI deposits, 138f
obstruction of Li-ion intercalation, 140–141
performance issues with, 136
sealed “loops”, 139f
SEI, 137
LMC films, 115
Low temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT), 151
Low-energy excitations, 31
Lower critical solution temperature (LCST), 116–117, 171
Lubricants, 150, 181, 192–195, 194t
Lump graphite, 13

M

Malaysia, 168
Manufacturing
methane as feed source, 59–62
production, 64–81
catalyst particle characteristics, 67–71
experience with reactor design, 76–79
health effects, 79–81
minimum fluidization velocity, 65–67
purity, 76
reactor types, 71–76
syngas as feed source, 62–64
Manufacturing costs
calculations, 85–88
commodity prices for consumable materials, 86t
financial factors, 90t
inputs for calculations, 91t
for manufacturing GN-CNT-GO, 92t
of synthesizing GN, MWCNT, and GO, 92t
CNT, 83
making graphene, 88–91
Membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI), 183
Mesoporous-activated carbon electrodes, 184–185
Metal substrate interaction (MSI), 46, 154
Metallic conductors, 30–31
Metallocenes, 110
Metals, 108, 160, 166–167
catalyst, 142–143
of VIII group, 151
at high temperatures, 33
transition, 42, 42–43
Methane, 42, 43–44, 149–150
as feed source, 59–62
process flow from LFG to GN, 62f
trapped in CSM, 149–150
Methyl aluminoxane (MAO), 110, 110, 111f
Methylated “graphene” oxide, 196–197
Methylmethacrylate, 114
Millidarcy (mD), 196–197
Million BTUs (MMBTU), 59–60
Minimum fluidization velocity, 65–67, 68
Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), 193–195
Modes of operation, 183–184
Modified Hummers’ method, 107
Molecular dynamics (MD), 38–39, 39f, 138–139
simulation of GN edges zipping, 39f
simulations and models, 169–170
Multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), 27, 27, 83, 88, 92t
Multiwall nanotubes (MWNT), 30–31
GN similarity to, 38–40
metallic properties, 30–31
Municipal solid waste, 62–63

N

Nanocomposites, 112–114, 114
Nanoelectro mechanical systems (NEMS), 24
Nanofibers, 44, 53–54
Nanofiltration membranes, 169–170
Nanostrucured crystalline graphite, 191
Naphthenic acids, 200
Natural gas (NG), 59–60, 88
Natural graphite, 13
Near-dry machining (NDM), 193–195
New bonding, graphite, 14
Newton’s equations, 69
Ni-Mg catalysts, 43
Nickel, 42–43, 44, 53–54
binding sites, 143–144
particles, 156
Nitric acid (HNO3), 16, 34–35
Nitrogen, 84–85, 108
groups, 108
oxides, 84–85
Nonaqueous solvents, 110–119
Noncovalent functionalization, 118
Nylons, 132

O

Octadecylamine (ODA), 112
O–H band intensity, 124–125
Oil-based fluids (OBFs), 195–196
Once-through reactors, 72
Organophilic graphitic nanosheets, 112
Osmosis, 170
Oxidation, 22
and functionalization, graphite, 14–21
process, 83–84
Oxidative dehydrogenation (ODH), 161, 161t, 162t, 162t
Oxidized graphite, 114, 119

P

Parcel Approach, 69
Partial radical, 7–8, 8–9
Particle size distribution (PSD), 68
Pervaporation, 174, 176f
desalination by, 176
Physical methods, 33
π-bands, 2–3
π–π stacking, 118
Plate-like formation, 13
Platinum, 166
Poly(4-vinyl pyridine) (P4VP), 116–117
Poly(dimethyl aminoethyl methacrylate) (PDMA), 116–117
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), 116–117
Poly(ethylene oxide), 171
Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), 112, 114, 116–117
Poly(N-isopropyl acryl amide-co-acrylic acid) (PNIPAm-co-AA), 117
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAm), 116–117, 171
Poly (N-vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP), 122–123, 123f
Poly(sodium acrylate)–poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PSA-NIPAM), 172–173
Poly (tetramethyleneglycol) (PTMG), 112–114, 113f
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), 115, 122–123, 123f
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), 116, 117f
Polyacrylic acids (PAA), 122–123, 123f
Polyamide composites, 132–133
Polyaniline, 109
Polyaniline-coated GO, 179–180
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 20–21, 20f
oxidation, 20f
Polycarbonate, 127–132, 129t
Polyetherimide (PEI), 169–170
Polyglycolic acid (PGA), 133–134
Polyimide, 114
Polylactic acid (PLA), 133–134, 134f
Polymer solar cells (PSCs), 108–109
Polymerized dopamine (PDA), 169–170
Polymers, 109–110, 127–135
additives, 121–135
improving electrical characteristics, 126–127
improving mechanical strength, 121–126
coefficient of thermal expansion, 135
HDPE composites, 133
PLA & PGA, 133–134
polyamide composites, 132–133
polycarbonate, 127–132, 129t
Polymethacrylic acids (PMA), 122–123
Polystyrene (PS), 112, 160, 176–177
Polyurethane (PU), 112–114, 113f
p-orbital electron, 3
p-orbitals, 1, 1–2, 3, 17–18
Potassium chlorate (KClO3), 34–35
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4), 35
Powder derived GO (PGO), 196–197
Production, GN, 64–81
catalyst particle characteristics, 67–71
experience with reactor design, 76–79
health effects, 79–81
minimum fluidization velocity, 65–67
purity, 76
reactor types, 71–76
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, 166
Purification, CNTs, 31–33
Pyrolysis oils, 157–158

Q

Quasiparticles, 23, 31

R

Raney Nickel, 155–156
Reaction mechanisms, 48–55
GN synthesis, 55
intermediate structures as building blocks, 48–52
plate-type unit, 51f
rod-type unit, 51f
SEM and TEM images of GN, 50f
models of, 52–55
Reactor types, 71–76
once-through reactors, 72
recirculating FBRs, 73–74, 73f
rotating fluidized reactors, 74–76
Recirculating FBRs, 73–74, 73f
RedOx process, 187, 188
Remediation, 185–186
Reverse osmosis, 168, 170
membranes, 169–170
seawater, 173–174
Rhodamine B, 108
Ribbon-type GN, 88, 89, 90–91, 126, 127
Rotating chamber type reactors, 74–75, 74f
Rotating fluidized beds (RFB), 74
Rotating fluidized reactors, 74–76
rotating chamber type reactors, 74–75, 74f
static chamber type reactors, 75–76, 75f
R-SO3− sulfonate group, 200
Ruthenium, 150, 166–167

S

Salinity, 173–174
Sandwich compounds, 110
Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 48, 50f
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 48
platelet GNs, 49, 49–52, 51f, 51f
Scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS), 7
Semiconductors, 29
σ-bands, 2–3
Silver-oxygen system, 145–146
Simulation approach, 69
Singapore, wastewater treatment in, 168
Single wall naotube (SWNT), 38–39
comparison to crystalline graphite, 143–144
GN as, 38–40
Single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), 27, 32–33, 40, 80–81, 144
Sodium nitrate, 85
Solid electrolyte interface (SEI), 136, 136–137, 138f, 139f
Solupor membrane, 172–173, 175
Sonication, 89, 93t
s-orbitals, 1
Static chamber type reactors, 75–76, 75f
Stern zone, 182
Strong metal substrate interaction (SMSI), 143–144, 152–153
Sulfated graphene oxide (GO–OSO3H), 108–109
Sulfonation, 108–109
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 35, 109
Supercritical carbon dioxide (ScCO2), 90–91, 90f
Surface energy, 10, 10–12
Synthesis gas (CO + H2), 42, 43, 62–63, 72, 88, 153–154
as feed source, 62–64
process flow from waste biomass to GN, 63f

T

Textural promoters, 44
Thermal conductivity, 3–4, 192–193
of graphite, 152–153
SiC and, 153
Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS), 19, 20–21
Thermal expansion coefficient, 135
Thermal stability of surface functional groups, 19
Thermal treatment, 33
Thermo gravimetry-differential thermal analysis combined with mass spectrometry (TG-DTA/Ms), 136–137
TiCl4, 110
TiO2, 108
Tomonaga–Luttinger liquid, 31
Toxic heavy metals, 176
Transition metals, 42
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 24, 49
Tri-chloro-ethylene (TCE), 185–186
Tube chirality, 27–28

U

Ultrasonication, 89
Unity Bond Index-Quadratic Exponential Potential (UBI-QEP), 151

V

van der Waals (VdW), 69–70
energy, 10
forces, 27, 70, 89, 121–122
Vapor pressure polarization effect, 175
Vegetable oils, 155
to drop in diesel, 158–159
esters of, 198–199
modified graphene, 192–193
Vein graphite, 13
Viscosity, 191–192

W

Waste biomass, 62–63, 63f
Wastewater treatment, 115–116, 168–185
adsorption, 179–182
arsenic removal, 177–178
heavy metal, 176–177
ionic contaminant removal, 176–177
membranes, 168–176, 172f
Water, 168–185
adsorption, 179–182
arsenic removal, 177–178
heavy metal, 176–177, 178t
ionic contaminant removal, 176–177
membranes, 168–176
Water-soluble polysaccharides, 115
Wear scar diameter (WSD), 192–193
World Health Organization (WHO), 80–81

X

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 19–20, 124, 136–137

Z

Ziegler–Natta reaction, 109–110, 111f, 111f
Zigzag structure, 27–28
Zigzag-edged graphene nanoribbon (ZGNR), 7, 7–8, 9
Zinc, 42–43
Zipping mechanism
graphitic nanofiber (GN), 39, 40f
molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of GN edges, 39f
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