Mesh

Meshes are the standard tools in most 3D modeling software and are composed of vertices, edges, and faces. A mesh is a grid of subobjects that defines an object in space.

In Object mode, the mesh appears as a single entity.

These subobjects create two-dimensional or three-dimensional objects of different types: the primitives. We can modify these objects to create complex virtual forms similar to the real ones.

The following section will deal with the main modeling objects, starting from primitives, the basic geometric objects.

Add Mesh

Blender 3.0 allows us to create several basic primitives. Primitives are the primary objects of any 3D modeling software. The most basic ones are usually the same in all software.

These objects are the first geometric figures to add from the Add menu scene (Shift+A). The window that opens already contains the most common primitives; we will soon see how to add to the same window more complex objects when we need them.

Meanwhile, in Figure 2-2 highlighted on the right, we see the basic primitives preinstalled in Blender 3.0.

We can add these objects: Plane, Cube, Circle, UV Sphere, ICO Sphere (the two spheres have different geometries), Cylinder, Cone, Torus, Grid (an already subdivided plane), and Susanne, the mascot of Blender.

We can modify these base shapes in Edit mode to create any desired form of them.

When we add these objects to the scene, a dialog box opens on the bottom left of the screen. We can expand it by clicking the arrow on the left.

Here, we can change the created object’s size, position, rotation, and alignment. Finally, we can collapse the dialog box by clicking the down arrow on the left.

This dialog box is available for operation only just after object creation. If we execute other commands, this dialog box vanishes. You can recall it with F9.

Let’s look at the other types of objects, starting with the Curve object.

Curve

Curves represent an essential Blender modeling object and can split into two types.

The most crucial difference between Bézier and NURBS objects is that while Bézier objects are approximations, NURBS shapes are exact.

Both are modifiable in Object and Edit modes and composed of control points to adjust them.

The computer calculates curves faster than meshes during modeling because they contain less data, but the calculation time could be longer during rendering.

Now we see how to add and edit curves.

Add Curve

We can add a curve from the Add menu or the shortcut Shift+A, as shown in Figure 2-3.

As we see in the menu, we can create two types of Bézier curves.

• Bézier, an open curve

• Bézier Circle, a closed circular curve

Or we can build three different kinds of NURBS.

• Nurbs curve, a 2D open arc

• Nurbs circle, a 2D closed circular curve

• Path, a 3D open curve with five aligned control points

Now let’s see the essential characteristics of Curves.

Explaining Splines

The subobject of the curve is the spline, which is composed of control points. We have three types of splines: Poly, Bézier, and NURBS.

Let’s look at them.

• Poly splines are the simplest, and we do not use them to model.

  We get them by converting meshes to curves, and they don’t have control points.

• Bézier splines have control points that modify their shape through a central point, a segment that crosses them tangent to the curve, and two handles at the ends, as shown in Figure 2-4.

  

  Figure 2-4 shows a Bézier curve in Edit mode with various control points selected. The central point moves the segment. The two handles at the end modify the spline curvature.

  The Bézier curves have four different handle types to modify the shape of the curve in various ways. We can set them either with the shortcut V or from the Object Context menu by selecting the points we want to modify, clicking with the right mouse button, and choosing the desired type in the window Set Handle Type, as shown in Figure 2-5.

  

  In Figure 2-5, we see five options.

  1. a.

     Automatic to get the smoothest curvature

      
  2. b.

     Vector to obtain sharp corners

      
  3. c.

     Aligned to keep the three points in line at all times and maintain smooth curves without sharp corners

      
  4. d.

     Free that creates vertices with independent handles

      
  5. e.

     Toggle Free/Align, which changes the vertex from free to aligned

      

• NURBS splines have different control points than the Bézier curves because they do not have the two handles but only the center point. Still, they have a weight option that increases or decreases the influence of the control point on the shape of the curve or surface, as shown on the right of Figure 2-6.

We can change this weight in the W Number field of the Transform panel of the Sidebar shown in Figure 2-6. If we select a point and bring the W value from 1 to 0, we see that the curve flattens, and the point no longer affects the shape of the curve. If the window is not visible, we can activate it with N.

Now we can start to modify curves.

Editing a Curve

We must create the curve in Object mode (Shift+A ➤ Curve ➤ Bézier) and then add vertices by selecting and extruding them by clicking E in Edit mode.

Finally, back to Object mode; we chose the Geometry window in the Properties Editor ➤ Object Data Properties.

Here we give shape to our curve by changing the Depth value to 0.1 in the Geometry ➤ Bevel panel.

The Toolbar

The toolbar contains the same tools for both Bézier curves and NURBS.

Figure 2-7 shows the most specific tools in Edit mode.

Here are the devices dedicated to Curves to edit them in Edit mode:

• Draw outlines a freehand spline and allows us to create the curve directly, drawing fluidly without extruding one vertex at a time.

• Extrude ejects new vertices from the selected existing ones.

• Radius modifies the thickness of the curves by widening or tightening them at the control points.

• Tilt controls the rotation of the curves.

• Shear inclines selected vertices along the horizontal screen axis.

• Randomize randomizes selected vertices.

We find other exciting tools in the Item window of the Sidebar that we open with N after selecting the control points we want to modify.

For example, for a Bézier curve, Radius modifies the thickness, and Tilt tilts the curve in 3D.

These tools are similar to those in the toolbar but numerically modifiable.

Object Data Properties

This panel of the Properties Editor controls the features of the curve. Figure 2-8 shows that we have several options to modify our objects.

In Figure 2-8, in the Shape window, the first buttons, 2D and 3D, allow us to control the development of the curve and transform it from a two-dimensional to a three-dimensional object.

The default option is 3D to distribute the curve three-dimensionally in space. However, if we change the option to 2D, we keep the curve development in the two-dimensional space of the XY plane.

Resolution is an essential value because it allows us to control the definition of our curve and its smoothness: the more the value increases, the more the curve will be dense, rounded, and defined.

Thus, Resolution Preview U is the value in the 3D window, and Render U is the value for rendering.

Expanding the Geometry tab, we find various labels with their respective fields to input values.

The Extrude value allows us to extrude the curve on the z-axis, obtaining a ribbon-type shape. After that, we can choose to fill values for the Offset field. With this, we can move the curve parallel to its normal.

The Geometry window also contains the Taper object that controls the thickness of the curve along the path. For example, this tool can thin the curve toward the ends and expand it in the center.

Then, if we expand the Bevel tab, we can give a thickness to the curve modifying some value.

Three options compose this tool: Round, Object, and Profile.

• Round assigns a circular profile to the curve that we can control with Depth and Resolution. By changing the Resolution value, we can alter the smoothness of the angle. We also have the option Fill Caps to fill the curve caps.

• The Object option allows us to add another curve to determine the profile of the primary arc. To assign the thickness, we need to add a new curve and then set it in the Object box of the Bevel window. By modifying the second curve, we interactively modify the profile of the first one.

• Profile instead provides us with a tool to modify the shape of the selected curve through Depth and Resolution options. It also gives us other essential editing tools, including a graph that we can modify by changing the profile of the curve. In addition, by changing the Resolution value, we can alter the smoothness of the bevel. The options Start and End under Start & End Mapping help shorten and lengthen the curve profile, and we can create keyframes to create cool animations of the curve.

Let us now briefly introduce the Surface object.

Surface

Surfaces are the extension of curves in the three-dimensional space. Still, Blender considers surfaces and curves different entities that we cannot join into a single object.

If we create two separate meshes in Object mode, we can select them both and click Ctrl+J to join them in one object.

Instead, if we do the same thing with curves and surfaces, we can’t join them.

In Blender 3.0, the only objects we can create as surfaces are NURBS. However, if we need a Bézier surface, as we have just seen, it is possible to obtain it directly from the curve’s Object Data Properties.

To add a surface, we must use the same method for meshes and curves, from the Add menu or the shortcut Shift+A.

We have six different surfaces: NURBS Curve, NURBS Circle, NURBS Surface, NURBS Cylinder, NURBS Sphere, and NURBS Torus.

NURBS surfaces have no volume and no thickness. They are only two-dimensional objects, and they have only two interpolation dimensions. The modification systems are similar to those of curves and meshes.

Metaball is another Blender object; it is less known but no less appealing. Let’s see its primary tools.

Metaball

Metaballs are strange and simple objects defined by pure mathematical expressions directly inside Blender. Therefore, we cannot modify them in Edit mode as with meshes or curves and surfaces.

These elements influence each other, and a field of interaction surrounds them.

If Influence is positive, they will exert mutual attraction, while if it is negative, they will apply repulsion.

We can use them to create organic elements or basic shapes for natural forms. Finally, we can convert them into meshes via the Convert To button of the Object tab in the 3D View Header menu.

Object mode displays them with a black circle to select them.

While in Edit mode, they don’t have either vertices or control points but only two colored rings. The green circle allows us to adjust the stiffness, while the pink one selects the sphere and applies the main transformations.

In the Sidebar, we can change the location, the radius, and the stiffness with numerical values. In this bar, we can also change the metaball type.

Object Data Properties

Also, in this case, we can control the metaball through the Object Data Properties panel of the Properties Editor. As shown in Figure 2-9, we have a few elements to modify our object.

In the Metaball window, we find the Resolution Viewport that controls the viewport visualization; the Render box determines the resolution in the render. Lowering these two values increases the resolution. Instead, the Influence Threshold option changes the influence of the entire metafamily of Metaball elements.

Objects in the same family affect each other. So to build separate entities, we need to create different families.

When we duplicate a Metaball object, we must modify the object’s name to change its family, as in Figure 2-10.

We need to change the object name via the Outliner panel in the Properties Editor. Once we change the name, we create another family from this metaball.

Finally, in the Properties Editor, open the Object Data Properties ➤ Active Element window in Edit mode. We can change the primitive shape of our meatball by choosing one of the five Metaball types (Ball, Capsule, Plane, Ellipsoid, and Cube), as shown in Figure 2-11.

Figure 2-11 displays the Type box. Also, we have the same tools of the Sidebar. The Stiffness value controls the influence of the selected metaball. With lower stiffness values, the object is influenced and deformed by the other elements from a greater distance. Instead, the Radius value modifies the object’s size.

We now see another helpful object, Text, which is for creating logos, signs, or three-dimensional graphics and animations.

Text

The Text object is composed of mathematically calculated vector data. We use it to create two-dimensional or three-dimensional texts in which the letters are curves filled by surfaces. We write directly in Blender and make words and sentences with this tool.

We can also import text from an external text editor.

We create the Text object in Object mode. Then in Edit mode, we change the letters and write other words as in a text editor.

Finally, we can quickly transform the text into a mesh from the 3D View Header menu; select Object ➤ Convert ➤ Curve/Mesh/Grease Pencil.

Object Data Properties

As in other object cases, an essential edit box for text is the Object Data Properties of the Properties Editor, in which we find many editing tools.

On the Shape tab, we can find the standard Resolution Preview U and Render U values, which determine the resolution of the object in the 3D Viewport and in the render.

The primary text is two-dimensional, but we can give it thickness and make it three-dimensional.

On the Geometry tab, Extrude, Offset, and the other parameters are more or less similar to the Curve Object Data Properties. For example, Offset modifies the text width; Extrude extrudes the text, increasing its depth and making it three-dimensional.

We can also add a Taper object to provide a draft-like appearance such as a Bézier curve to modify the thickness.

With the Bevel tool, we can provide a chamfer feature that enhances the text’s look.

Three buttons compose this tool as with curves: Round, Object, and Profile.

• Round assigns to text a circular profile. We can control the depth and resolution. We also have the option Fill Caps.

• The Object option allows us to add another object to determine the depth of the text, as with curves.

• Profile instead provides us with tools to modify the text shape through the depth and resolution. It also gives us other editing tools. Moreover, by changing the resolution value, we can alter the smoothness of the bevel.

The Blender Text tool already contains many characters, and it also allows us to import external fonts.

In the Font window of the Object Data, we can click the Folder icon to load new fonts. When we click the icon, a window that contains many preinstalled typographical characters opens. In the same window, the Transform section allows us to change the dimension of our text in the Size box and the inclination in the Shear box.

After these values, we have the Text on Curve box, where we can choose a curve on which to apply the text, as shown in Figure 2-12.

In Figure 2-12, we can see the result of the default Blender text with a Bézier circle applied as a Bevel object in the Bevel window. With this operation, we have given three-dimensionality to a text. We have also changed the text’s distribution with another Bézier circle referred to as Text on Curve in the Transform window. Finally, we have converted the text into a mesh with Object ➤ Convert ➤ Mesh.

We can also assign a material to the text in the Materials window of the Properties Editor as we do with all the other objects.

After briefly discussing all the main modeling objects, let’s talk about the different elements we can add from the Add window of the main menu or with the shortcut Shift+A.

Other Blender Objects

We have seen modeling objects and the tools to modify them until now.

We can also add other kinds of objects to our scenes.

Let’s look at these: the main ones are lights and cameras to light and film our sets, or empties and images useful to help us in modeling.

Transform

We can perform transformations on objects with the Transform button of the Object tab. We’ve already seen basic transformations in Chapter 1.

Set Origin

This tool sets the origin of the selected object respect to the geometry.

The origin is the orange point that Blender by default places in the object’s geometric center; it determines its location in the 3D Viewport.

It is the point of calculation of the main transformations.

Some transformations are more straightforward if the object’s origin does not match its geometric center.

We can reposition the origin of our object with Set Origin, using the Object tab of the header menu of 3D view, as shown in Figure 2-14.

We can open the window shown in Figure 2-14 to move the object’s origin to the geometry, the 3D cursor, or other positions.

Mirror

We can reflect the object’s geometry by selecting the entity, clicking the Mirror button of the Object tab or with the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+M, and then pressing the Axis key of the desired transformation (X, Y, or Z).

Clear and Apply

In the Sidebar transform panel, when we create an object in the origin of the Cartesian space (0,0,0) and when this origin corresponds with the object’s origin, the location and rotation values are 0 while the scale is 1.

If we move, rotate, or scale the object, the values change with the modifications made.

Instead, we reset the values of the changes so that Location and Rotation return to 0 and Scale returns to 1.

We can perform this operation by clicking Apply from the Object voice or the shortcut Ctrl-A. This way we apply the main transformations: Location, Rotation, and Scale.

These two commands of the Object tab are essential when we want to animate an object or sculpt or apply modifiers or constraints. For example, in some cases, if the Scale values of X, Y, and Z are not 1, Blender does not apply some changes correctly. This error happens because it cannot interpret the object’s shape if the Scale value is not the default value of 1.

Snap

In Chapter 1, we have already seen that we can snap an object during a transformation. In Figure 2-15, we see a second type of snapping on the Object tab.

This type of transformation snaps the selected object or the 3D cursor to a series of given points. For example, we can choose Selection to Cursor and move the center of the selected object to the 3D cursor, or Cursor to Selected and move the cursor to the center of the chosen object Cursor to World Origin, Cursor to Grid, etc.

Duplicate

We can duplicate our objects with Duplicate Objects or Duplicate Linked in the Object tab.

We create a copy of the object untied from the original by clicking Shift+D or Duplicate Objects. This duplication system is proper when, after the duplication, we want to alter one element without changing the other.

Instead, we can create a linked copy with Alt+D or Duplicate Linked. After that, if we modify one of the elements in Edit mode, we also change all the others; on the other hand, the Object mode transformations on one of the items will not alter the others.

Instead, we separate the two objects in Object mode by selecting one and clicking Object ➤ Relations ➤ Make Single User ➤ Object and Data.

Link/Transfer Data

We can also connect separated objects by selecting them and clicking Link/Transfer Data on the Object Header's menu or with the shortcut Ctrl+L and then choosing Link Object Data in the window.

The two items remain distinct but connected, as in the previous case with Alt+D or Duplicate Linked.

Also, in this case, if we want to separate the two objects again, we can click Object ➤ Relations ➤ Make Single User ➤ Object and Data.

The window Link/Transfer Data feature is essential because it allows us to copy data from one object to another in Blender, such as materials, animation data, modifiers, etc., as shown in Figure 2-16.

This can save us a lot of time. We must first select (LMB) the object where we want to copy the data, then select the second object (Shift+LMB), press Ctrl+L, and choose, in the window that opens, the data we want to copy.

Join

We can join two objects in Edit mode with the command Join or Ctrl+J. However, they must be objects of the same type; for example, we cannot merge a mesh with a Bézier curve.

If we create, with Add or Shift+A, different objects in Object mode, we build separate items.

But if we create the first one in Object mode and then select it and go to Edit mode, making the second, we create a single object.

In reverse, in Edit mode, we can separate two parts of a single object by selecting the elements to separate, pressing P, and choosing Selection in the window that opens.

Convert

With the Convert tool, we can convert one object into another. For example, we can transform a mesh into a curve and vice versa. Likewise, we can quickly transform a mesh or a text into a curve, as shown in Figure 2-17.

In the Header menu under Object, we can select Convert and convert one object into another.

We use this tool mainly to change other objects to meshes.

Show/Hide

If we want to work comfortably in the 3D viewport, hiding and showing some objects is essential.

Blender helps us with the collections. We can put different types of objects on various collections and show or hide them altogether, hiding the whole collection from view by clicking one of the buttons in the outliner, as in Figure 2-18.

In Figure 2-18, we have highlighted the buttons Hide in Viewport, Disable in Viewports, and Disable in Renders.

For example, in an architecture project, we can separate the environment, the walls, the architectural elements, the furniture, etc., by putting them in different collections, and we can display them separately.

But there is another faster method. We can also control the display of every singular object with the Show/Hide tools. With these commands in the Object panel or with some shortcuts, we hide the selected elements of the scene.

We hide the selected objects with H; we hide the unselected things with Shift+H and show the hidden objects with Alt+H. This method is advantageous when modeling, especially when we have a scene crowded with many things.

Delete

We can delete selected objects from the scene with the command Delete or the shortcut X.

In Edit mode, we can delete vertices, edges, and faces or dissolve them, as we will see in the next session.

We have just seen the essential operations that we can perform in general in Object mode; now, let’s deepen meshes and their editing techniques in Edit mode.

Mesh Visualization

In Edit mode, we have the tools for correct visualization of the meshes.

We must orient the face’s normals in the right way to correctly visualize an object.

Normals

Normals are the lines perpendicular to the faces. 3D modeling software uses them for the correct visualization of objects. Any 3D modeler visualizes surfaces with the normals directed toward the observer; it does not display those pointing in the opposite direction.

In the Viewport Overlays panel in Edit mode, as shown in Figure 2-19, we can visualize the direction of the normals of vertices, edges, and faces.

We select the object and click Tab to switch to Edit mode. Then, in the 3D View Header, we click the arrow next to the Show Overlays button, and in the window that opens, we go down to Normals and click the icon of the normal we want to display.

Normal Configuration

Normals can be reconfigured with tools and keyboard shortcuts on selected faces in Edit mode.

In Figure 2-20, we see the Normals menu for modifying the normals.

We can open the Normals window in Edit Mode, in the 3D View Header menu with Mesh ➤ Normals or the shortcut Alt+N. Here we find all the normal editing operations.

For example, with Shift+N, we can Recalculate Normals Outside, and with Ctrl+Shift+N, we can Recalculate Normals Inside. We can also use the Flip key inside the window to reverse the direction of the selected Normals.

The Toolbar in Edit Mode

Figure 2-21 shows the toolbar in Edit mode.

We can see the second part of the toolbar for the mesh in Edit mode in Figure 2-22.

Instead, if we click and expand Overlays in the 3D View header in Edit mode, we will find particular measurement settings such as Edge Length, Edge Angle, Face Area, and Face Angle.

Then there are other essential modeling tools:

• Add Mesh allows us to add Cube, Cone, Cylinder, UVSphere, and IcoSphere objects by clicking and dragging directly on the 3D view, snapping on the grid or the object’s surface.

• We have the tool Extrude to extrude vertices, edges, and faces, creating new geometry (see Figure 2-23). With the shortcuts E for extruding and Alt+E for the extruding menu, we can perform all the options of this operation. If we want to extrude a subobject, we must press E and move the mouse. We can press, for example, E ➤ Z+1 and extrude the selected object (a vertex, an edge, or a face) on the z-axis of a unit of measure. Instead, by pressing E ➤ Shift+X, we extrude on the ZY plane.

After pressing Alt+E, we can see the various instruments for the Face subobject in Figure 2-23. In the Extrude menu, we find several items with different extrusion possibilities according to the selected subobject: Extrude Faces, Extrude Faces Along Normals, Extrude Individual Faces, Extrude Edges, Extrude Vertices, Extrude Repeat, and Spin.

In the third and last part of the toolbar, we find another instrument category, as shown in Figure 2-24.

Now let’s look at other mesh modeling tools in Edit mode.

Other Modeling Tools in Edit Mode

The toolbar doesn’t collect all the most critical mesh editing tools at the subobject level.

We can access other tools via keyboard shortcuts or search them in the various menus.

Add Mesh Add-Ons

As we saw at the beginning of this chapter, the Blender default Add menu (Shift+A) allows us to add a limited number of objects to the 3D Viewport.

From the add-ons panel of the User Preferences, we can add many more objects and, in particular, many other types of meshes to the Add menu.

We can add, for example, some shapes created directly with mathematical formulas, architectural modeling objects, or mechanical items.

If we want to add these objects to the Add menu, we have to activate the respective add-ons in the User Preferences by checking the boxes for the type of mesh we want to enable (Topbar ➤ Edit ➤ Preferences ➤ Add-ons).

There are add-ons in Blender activable in two different ways:

In Figure 2-25, we can see the Add-Ons section of the User Preferences window.

In Figure 2-25, we have visualized and highlighted all the Add Mesh add-ons preinstalled in Blender 3.0.

By adding these tools, the number of primitives we can create in Blender increases exponentially.

Let’s take a closer look at the features of the Extra Objects, which are Add Curves: Extra Objects and Add Meshes: Extra Objects.

Figure 2-26 highlights the variety of object categories we can add to the Add menu by activating this add-on.

Many external add-ons can be downloaded from the Internet and installed in Blender. Some of these are free; for others, we have to pay small amounts.

We can find many of them on this site:

https://blender-addons.org/advanced-boolean-tool-abt-addon/

In Chapter 3, we will study other interesting mesh editing add-ons such as Edit Mesh Tools, Bool Tool, etc.

After learning more about the main mesh modification methods in Object mode and Edit mode in this section, we go on with a completely different and more intuitive modeling system: sculpting.

Preparing the Object

We can start modeling quickly by creating a new file from the Topbar menu by selecting File ➤ New (Ctrl+N) and choosing Sculpting from the drop-down menu.

We are in the Sculpting workspace with a spherical object ready to sculpt.

This way is the quickest to start modeling.

But we can create shapes to model with several other methods.

We can build any primitive and subdivide it to add vertices.

We can model the general shape with several separate primitives in Object mode and join Ctrl+J in a single mesh to create a more complex object. Of course, meshes must have closed forms. We can also use the Boolean modifier, as we will see later in this chapter.

Then we go to Sculpt mode and add more and more details to model more organic shapes. So, let’s create our form. We start with a cube and switch to Edit mode with Tab.

Then we right-click the object to open the Object context menu. In the Object context menu window, we click Subdivide to create more geometry; we change the number of cuts to 40 and increase the Smoothness value to 1.00.

Let’s go back to Object mode, right-click the smoothed Cube, and choose Shade Smooth. Then we add a Subdivision Surface modifier to our object and set Levels Viewport and Render values to 2.

Then we apply the modifier.

We can also use the Multiresolution modifier and set the number subdivision to 3.

Please see the “Modeling with Modifiers” section of this chapter to see how they work.

If we want to change the scale of our element, enlarging or shrinking it, it is essential to apply the transformation with the shortcut Ctrl+A and then select Apply ➤ Scale.

This shape is my favorite, ready to sculpt everything, starting from a smoothed cube.

We have prepared the object to model. Now we set the interface to sculpt.

Preparing the Interface

We can switch directly to the Sculpting workspace, already set for this type of modeling.

Let’s set the toolbar as a dual-column row to have all the instruments available simultaneously in the interface. When the mouse is on the right edge of the toolbar, a double-sided arrow appears. If we click the left mouse button and move it to the right, we arrange the instruments in two vertical lines. If we continue to drag the mouse, the name will be displayed next to the brush.

We find the Properties Editor’s Active Tool and Workspace Settings to the right of the interface.

Now we’re ready to sculpt, and we can learn about Blender’s various digital sculpting tools.

Remesh

We apply Remesh to the object after the sculpting. We can achieve uniform geometry and modify its density as we like.

Dynamic Topology instead is interactive and allows us to add geometry in the exact moment we sculpt.

These tools are effective and will enable us to define details of the modeled object as we want.

We can start from a basic shape created with other sculpting techniques.

In this case, we can combine different primitives to form a primary object and then go into Sculpt mode.

When we want to standardize the geometry of different shapes or increase the mesh density to edit it into sculpt mode, we can use Remesh.

Of course, this tool will not work if we have Dyntopo active simultaneously.

This technique automatically rebuilds the form with a more uniform topology; in this case, we can control the voxel size resolution and generate a better topology, as shown in Figure 2-32.

We access the Remesh window from the Remesh button in the Tool Settings of the header of the 3D window, and we click the Remesh button.

This way, we create a mesh from the geometry with a correctly distributed topology without any shape change.

Editing the object in Sculpt mode, we move the vertices and modify the mesh’s geometry. For example, using the grab brush, we drag the vertices. Then, switching to edit mode, we see that the mesh is less dense where we have worked with this brush because sculpting has moved the vertices away. Remesh helps us make the geometry of our object more homogeneous, retopologizing and unifying the density of the vertices.

Dyntopo

Dynamic topology is interactive and helps us create new geometry when we need it while sculpting.

So, we don’t have to start from a high-defined mesh in this case.

We add geometry and change the object’s topology during the sculpting. Thus, we can model interactively without adding too much geometry to the base object when we activate this tool.

We enable this tool by checking the Dyntopo box in the Tool Settings tab of the 3D window header by choosing Subdivide Collapse as Refine Method and Relative or Constant Detail as Detailing. We can also decide the topology resolution with the Detail Size value from the same window, as shown in Figure 2-33.

We can toggle Dyntopo with the checkbox in the Tool Settings, as we have just seen, or with the Ctrl+D shortcut.

Most brushes will subdivide the mesh with dynamic topology active during the stroke.

We have seen how to sculpt with Blender 3.0 and interactively with Dyntopo; now, let’s see how to model by applying different algorithms to objects: the modifiers.

Array

We can use the Array modifier to create groups of objects to develop complex scenes with repeated elements.

It builds an array of copies of one element.

We can determine the number of instances with the Count value. Then, we can shift them with an offset determined as Relative Offset or Constant Offset.

We can also move, rotate, or scale the array concerning a reference object with the Object Offset option.

The reference object can be an empty, and we must choose it in the Object Offset box. This empty replaces the offset table’s numerical values. It controls the transformations series of objects reproduced by the modifier, so it is sufficient to translate, rotate, or scale this object to modify the arrangement of the repeated elements in 3D view.

We can also add more than one array modifier to the same object to multiply the element with different spatial distributions on the various Cartesian planes.

By selecting Merge, we merge the vertices of each copy according to the Distance value; also, selecting First Last, we join the vertices of the first with those of the last if they are in the distance range we set.

Bevel

The Bevel modifier bevels the edges of the object and allows us to control the width type of the angle, the amount or percent, and the number of segments. We can also modify the bevel shape with the Profile option.

We have five options that control width types: Offset, Width, Depth, Percent, and Absolute.

If we click the Vertices button, the effect is applied only to the vertices and not the edges.

At the same time, under Geometry tab intersections, Clamp Overlap prevents new geometries from intersecting and overlapping the existing ones.

By changing the Profile value, we modify the shape of the beveled profile.

We can choose between a default profile and a customizable one.

Miter Outer and Inner are functional in the Geometry window when two beveled edges meet at an angle. Still, one last important option in the same window is Intersection Type that controls the intersections at the vertices. It can be adjusted as Grid Fill to maintain a smooth continuation of the bevel profile or Cutoff that creates a cutoff face at the vertices.

Several other options allow us to solve even the most complex cases that we won’t see in this book.

Boolean

The Boolean modifier is a simple-to-use tool that combines two objects to create a single entity with the possibility of making the two meshes interact in three ways: Intersect, Union, and Difference.

With the first operation, we keep the intersection of both objects. With the second, we obtain the union of both meshes in a single element.

With the third operation, we subtract from the first object the part in common with the second.

We can also apply the modifier to more than one object simultaneously by choosing a collection as an operand type instead of just one entity.

Let’s see how to use this modifier.

We need two meshes: select the first one, add Boolean from the modifier stack, and choose one of the three available interaction types. Then we add the name of the second object in the Object box or click it with the eyedropper.

We must select Wireframe for the objects in the Viewport Display section of the Object Properties window to see the geometry changes in real time. To better view the creation process, we can also enable Toggle X-Ray.

Once we finish this operation, applying the modifier and deleting the second object is essential because Blender does not automatically delete it.

In many cases, it is convenient to replace this modifier with the Bool Tool add-on.

With this add-on, we can directly edit objects, simplifying the application process. We will see this tool in Chapter 3.

Decimate

The Decimate modifier allows us to reduce the number of polygons of an object as much as possible without changing its shape. We use it, for example, to simplify the geometry of objects modeled in Sculpt mode. But, too exaggerated reductions can also heavily modify the object’s geometry until it is unrecognizable.

At the bottom of the window, there is the Face Count setting, which is the number of faces after the reduction.

Geometry Nodes

This is a fundamental tool for creating and modifying geometry and procedural modeling. So, we can’t help but dwell a little bit longer on it.

The Geometry Nodes modifier has been part of Blender since version 2.92 in early 2021, and new nodes have been added continuously since then.

Now in Blender 3.0, we are starting to see the first results.

It’s a complex system that is getting bigger and bigger, and in this book, we only have time to introduce the basic concepts.

This modifier allows gathering, through a nodal system, all the Blender modifiers to edit the object’s geometry.

This specific nodal system has been built the Geometry Node Editor, a particular editor for creating and modifying geometry. Moreover, Blender developers introduced the workspace shown in Figure 2-36.

At the top of Figure 2-36, we see the button for activating the Geometry Nodes workspace. This workspace comprises the Spreadsheet Editor on the top left, the 3D Viewport, and the Geometry Nodes Editor at the bottom, highlighted by the white box. Then, as usual, there are the Outliner and the Properties Editor on the right.

At the top of the Geometry Nodes Editor, there is the button New to create the nodal system and some nodes to create the simple object that we can see in the 3D Viewport.

The Group Input and Group Output nodes appear in the Geometry Nodes Editor by clicking the New button.

In addition, a Geometry Nodes modifier appears in the Modifier Properties of the Properties Editor.

In this case, we have applied a Point Distribute node to the cube to distribute points on its surface. The Join Geometry node allows us to visualize the cube and the distributed elements togheter.

The points and their distribution in space are the fundamentals for the geometry nodes.

The Geometry Nodes workspace spreadsheet displays all the geometric information of the objects in the left window. Figure 2-37 displays all the cube’s vertices and their positions.

The geometry nodes modifier works on this information.

But let’s see step-by-step how to create our first geometry nodes.

1. 1.

   Open Blender and create a new file.

    
2. 2.

   Select the Geometry Nodes workspace in the Topbar to open the nodal modeling interface.

    
3. 3.

   Delete the default cube and create a plane (Shift+A ➤ Mesh ➤ Plane). Then, scale the plane (S ➤ 4) and apply the transformation (Ctrl+A ➤ Scale).

    
4. 4.

   Create a new modifier by clicking the New button in the middle of the Geometry Node Editor window. Then, a Geometry Nodes modifier appears in the Modifier tab of the Properties Editor.

   You can also add the modifier directly from the modifier panel of the Properties Editor by clicking Add Modifier and then on Geometry Nodes in the section “Generates.”

    
5. 5.

    Add a Point Distribute node (Shift + A ➤ Search ➤ Point Distribute), distributing points on the plane’s surface and creating a cloud of points instead of the plane itself. These points are displayed in the spreadsheet, as shown in Figure 2-38.

    

In this way, starting from the basic geometry, by adding nodes, we can quickly create objects and environments with complex geometries and control them through a nodal system.

There already are a lot of nodes. If, for example, we want to act on single points, we must use the Attribute node, etc.

These simple principles create a complex node system that represents a new way to approach 3D modeling, including other Blender add-ons such as Sverchok and Sorcar that we will see in Chapter 3.

Let’s continue with the other nodes and analyze the Mirror modifier.

Mirror

In many cases, symmetry is indispensable for modeling organic, mechanical, or artificial objects.

The Mirror modifier allows us to model only half of the element and reflect changes on the other half with real-time shape updates during modeling.

If we want to introduce asymmetries in the object, we must first apply the modifier.

This tool reflects the object on the x-, y-, and z-axes, and usually, the reference point for the mirroring is the entity’s origin.

We can also take as a reference point an external object, such as an empty.

To do this, we must select the name of the object we want to use as a reference in the Mirror Object selector.

We can also add more than one Mirror modifier to a single object.

Multiresolution

The Multiresolution modifier allows us to subdivide the geometry of the selected object, adding subobjects and blunting its shapes, similarly to Subdivision Surface, which we will learn about in a moment.

Once we add the modifier to the object, we must click a few times on the Subdivide button to add geometry.

Multiresolution allows us to switch from one definition level to another easily with Level values.

It has one more advantage: Sculpt mode can also edit the new subdivided geometry without applying the modifier.

We must first subdivide the surface with the Subdivide button, and then, to see the results, we can switch from one definition level to another in Level Viewport, Sculpt and Render.

We can use this modifier in Sculpt mode by checking the box Sculpt Base Mesh.

Remesh

The Remesh modifier is similar to the tool we’ve already seen in Sculpt mode.

It allows us to create a new mesh topology and transforms all faces into quads, or faces with four vertices.

The mesh must have a thickness and a closed shape for this modifier to act correctly.

For flat surfaces, we add the Solidify modifier above Remesh to give a volume to the mesh.

Skin

This modifier creates a volume from a set of vertices and edges. The shape obtained is mainly composed of quads and some triangular surfaces at the intersections.

In Edit mode, we can scale the single parts of the object by left-clicking and then pressing Ctrl+A and moving the mouse. There is also the ability to develop an armature for the generated form with the Create Armature button. A Blender armature is like a skeleton composed of bones related to the corresponding parts of the mesh. When these bones are moved or rotated, the associated form moves and deforms similarly. So, we can also quickly animate the shapes created with this modifier.

Solidify

It adds thickness to meshes. The Thickness option controls the width in the unit of measure we are using in the file. To get the correct result, we must first apply the transformations and ensure that the Scale values are 1.

If we want accurate results, we have to use the Complex mode with Constraints Thickness mode. This solution for 3D printing is advantageous, but it is still necessary to check the thickness with Blender’s internal add-ons for 3D printing or other external tools.

Subdivision Surface

The Subdivision Surface modifier subdivides the mesh faces, adding more definition and geometry to the mesh.

We can use two different subdivision algorithms with the Catmull-Clark and Simple buttons: the first subdivides and smooths the surfaces, while the second divide them without blunting.

With the Levels Viewport and Render values of the window, we can increase the number of subdivisions both in render and in the 3D Viewport; with the Quality value of the Advanced window, we control the precision of the vertex positioning. These values define the mesh section: the higher they are, the more subdivided the mesh.

To keep some sharp edges less blunted, we have to add edge loops or select the Use Creases option.

Subdivision surface does not allow us to edit the new subdivided geometry without applying it in Sculpt mode.

In this case, we must use the multiresolution modifier.

Now let’s go on with another type of modifiers for modeling: the deform modifiers.

Displace

We move the mesh’s vertices using a texture, either an image or a procedural one with Displace modifier.

This tool needs a dense geometry to work well.

So to get good results, we have to subdivide the mesh. Then we must add a subdivision surface modifier with a subdivision value of 3 or 4.

We can add Displace first and then the texture to create a vertex displacement, as shown in Figure 2-39.

If a texture is already present in Blender, we add it by clicking the small arrow next to the chessboard shown in the figure; if we have to create a new one, we must click the New button. Then clicking the button to the right in Figure 2-39, we go to the texture window to edit it.

From this window, we can add different types of textures: Image, Blend, Clouds, Distorted Noise, Magic, etc.

In the interface of Figure 2-39, we have two more essential buttons to adjust the results: Strength, which controls the power of the movement of the displacement, and Midlevel, which checks the application level of the modifier.

Wave

Finally, we introduce a modifier that brings movement into our scene. Wave applies wave motion to the object, and we can use it on meshes, lattices, curves, surfaces, and texts.

Also, this modifier needs geometry to work, so to see the effect, we must perform the procedure seen with Displace and Create, for example, a plane of 10 meters with 100 subdivisions.

The Motion buttons control the orientation of the wave on the x- and y-axis. With the Time window, we can manage the animation.

We have just seen modifiers and deepened the essential ones for modeling.

This section closes the theoretical part of this critical chapter about the different modeling techniques.

Now let’s move on to the part dedicated to practicing the theoretical notions learned until now.

Setting the File

Let’s start setting up the Blender file to model our objects easily. This step seems bland, but it’s vital for a good start.

1. 1.

   Create a new Blender file by selecting File ➤ New ➤ General. Next, save the file with Ctrl+S as Teapot in the local computer drive; from the main menu, select File ➤ Save ➤ Save Blender File, as in Figure 2-41.

    

1. 2.

   Set the unit system of the scene. Go to the Scene Properties window of the Properties Editor and open the Units window. From here, set Unit System to Metric and Length to Centimeters, as shown in Figure 2-42.

    

1. 3.

   Delete the cube with X ➤ Delete, as in Figure 2-43.

    

Creating the Base Shape

Now let’s create the basic shape for our teapot. In this exercise, we will work starting from the object’s volume. Let’s begin by importing a reference drawing, creating a sphere, and giving it the dimensions of a real thing.

1. 1.

   Go to the Right Orthographic view by pressing 3 on the Numpad; import the reference drawing for the teapot by dragging and dropping it in the 3D viewport or with Shift+A (Shift+A ➤ Image ➤ Reference ➤ Select Teapot and click Load Reference Image), as in Figure 2-44.

    

1. 2.

   Create a sphere by using the Add menu item or by pressing Shift+A ➤ Mesh ➤ UVSphere.

    
2. 3.

   Change the sphere’s size by setting the Sidebar dimensions to 14.5 x 14.5 x 14.5 centimeters, as in Figure 2-45. Then apply the dimension’s changes with Ctrl+A ➤ Scale.

    
3. 4.

   Modify the reference drawing of the sphere by selecting it, clicking S, and reducing it until it corresponds with the sphere’s shape, as shown in Figure 2-45.

    

1. 5.

   Duplicate the Reference Image (Shift+D) and rotate it -90 degrees on the y-axis (R ➤ Y ➤ -90). Then align the drawings with the sphere shape, as shown in Figure 2-46.

    

1. 6.

   Select the sphere, right-click, and choose Shade Smooth from the menu that appears.

    
2. 7.

   Then go to the Modifiers Properties panel of the Properties Editor, click Add Modifier, choose Multiresolution from the menu, and click the Subdivide button three times, as shown in Figure 2-47.

    

Creating the Handle and Spout

Then, we create the teapot’s spout, lid, and handle through extrusions and scaling.

1. 1.

   Press Tab and go to Edit mode. Go to the Right Orthographic view, select and adjust the loops for the extrusion of the handle and spout as in Figure 2-48, and scale them to maintain the spheric shape of the teapot.

    

1. 2.

   Change the Transform Pivot Point setting from Median Point to 3D Cursor, as shown in Figure 2-49.

    

1. 3.

   In this way, you turn the loops around the 3D cursor. Then, rotate the circles on the Top Orthographic View, as shown in Figure 2-50.

    

1. 4.

   Then go to Front View by clicking 1 on the Numpad, go to Face Select by pressing 3, and select the four front faces of the spout, with Alt+LMB as shown in Figure 2-51.

    

1. 5.

   Press 3 on the Numpad to go to Right View and extrude with E ➤ Y the spout following the drawing trace, as shown in Figure 2-52.

    

1. 6.

   Reposition the transform pivot point from 3D Cursor to Individual Origins and then, with the faces selected, click S ➤ Y ➤0 and scale on the Y-axis to flatten the faces.

    
2. 7.

   Select the four faces of the handle, press E ➤ Y, extrude the handle, and then press S ➤ Y ➤ 0 to flatten the faces. Next, extrude on the y-axis again and continue modeling the handle, following the drawing, until you obtain the desired shapes, as shown in Figure 2-53.

    

1. 8.

   To create the handle of the teapot lid, select the vertices at the top and scale them until they match the profile on the reference drawing; then, extrude them and scale to zero on the z-axis (S ➤ Z ➤ 0), as in Figure 2-54.

    

Now transform the lid into a box.

1. 9.

   Press 7 to go to Top Orthographic View, and then click Toggle X-Ray to see all the handle vertices. Type B for Border selection and drag to select 9 + 9 vertices on the top as in Figure 2-55. Then scale them on the y-axis to 0.

   Repeat the same operation on the bottom vertices.

    

1. 10.

   Then scale the right and left sides vertices of the lid handle to zero on the x-axis.

    
2. 11.

   After clicking 2, go to edges selection and select the handles and spout edges, as shown in Figure 2-56.

    

We can select the Autosmooth box in the Normals window of the Object Data Properties of the Properties Editor for a more defined edges visualization. We leave the Autosmooth angle at the default setting of 30 degrees.

Separating the Cover

Now we create the division between the lid and the teapot.

1. 1.

   Type 3 on the Numpad to go to Right Ortho view and select the loop next to the lid division with Alt+LMB, as shown in Figure 2-57; make it coincide with the drawing and then click V ➤ ESC to detach the vertices of the selected circle.

    

Creating the Teapot Base

Finally, we create a stable base for the teapot continuing with extrusion and scaling.

1. 1.

   Delete the single vertex at the teapot’s base.

    
2. 2.

   Select the loop cut at the teapot’s base (Alt+LMB) and extrude it with E ➤ Z, as shown in Figure 2-58.

    

1. 5.

   Finally, select all the base’s angular vertices and crease them (Shift+E  ➤ 1).

   You can see the teapot in the 3D Viewport in Solid shading, as in Figure 2-60.

    

Since we’ve learned about the mesh modeling in Edit mode in this exercise, we will investigate other techniques by rotating a profile with the screw modifier.

Setting the File

Also, in this second exercise, we start by setting up the file to model our objects easily.

1. 1.

   Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 of this chapter’s Exercise 1.

   Save the file as Glass.blend on the local computer’s drive from the main menu and select File ➤ Save ➤ Save Blender File or press Ctrl+S.

   If you don’t want to repeat these steps every time you can save a custom startup file from the main menu and select File ➤ Defaults  ➤ Save Startup File, as shown in Figure 2-61.

   This way, when you create a new file, it will have the settings you have given it now.

    

1. 2.

   Prepare the scene by selecting the light and the camera, and pressing M. In the window that appears, click New Collection and create another collection called scene. In this way, you have a layer containing the light and the camera, as shown in Figure 2-62.

    

Preparing the Basic Object

Now let’s create a reference object to give accurate measurements to our glass. Then we import an image to help us model its profile.

1. 1.

   Go to the Front Orthographic View by pressing 1 on the Numpad. Then, create a plane by using the Add menu item or by pressing Shift+A ➤ Mesh ➤ Plane, as shown in Figure 2-63.

    

1. 2.

   In the Outliner Editor, when we click the eye to the right of the Scene collection, we can hide or show the objects it contains in the 3D view by toggling the eye symbol on and off, as shown in Figure 2-64.

    

1. 3.

   Select the plane and go to Edit mode by pressing Tab. Select the four vertices if they are not yet selected. Then merge them by clicking M and choosing At center, as shown in Figure 2-65.

   This way, the four vertices will join in the center, and there will be only one left.

    

1. 4.

   Select the vertex, select the Plane object in the Outliner, and rename it Glass by double-clicking the Plane name, typing the new name, and pressing Enter to apply it.

    
2. 5.

   Go to Edit mode, press B for Border Selection, and drag the left button, selecting the vertex. Then click E ➤ Z ➤ 20 and get a 20-centimeter vertical edge, as shown in Figure 2-66.

    

1. 6.

   Clicking B again selects both vertices, and clicking E ➤ X ➤ 20 creates a 20 by 20-centimeter plane that serves as a reference for your model’s height. The glass is 20 centimeters high.

    
2. 7.

   Now press Tab to return to Object mode, press 1 in the Numpad to go to Front Orthographic View, and drag and drop the image Glass, as shown in Figure 2-67.

    

1. 8.

   Then select the reference image, move it with G, and shrink it with S such that the height of the glass from bottom to top will be 20 cm, as Figure 2-68.

   Pan and zoom the view with the mouse’s central wheel and use the shortcut Shift when necessary.

    

We also could have followed much quicker processes. For example, we could have directly created a plane 20 by 20 centimeters and positioned it frontally in the Front Horthographic View. Nevertheless, the procedure we have chosen, surely more complex, has introduced some essential concepts of the Blender Edit mode.

Creating the Profile and Screwing It

Finally, we keep only one vertex, extrude it in Front Orthographic View to get the profile of the glass, and apply a Screw modifier to create the volume. A second Subdivision Surface modifier will help us round and define the shape precisely.

1. 1.

   Make sure that you still have Glass selected and go to Edit mode. Keep only the bottom vertex, and delete the other three by clicking X and choosing Vertices from the drop-down menu.

    
2. 2.

   From the Front Ortho view, move the vertex to the right and select and click E several times to extrude it following the shape of the glass until you get a profile like the one in Figure 2-69.

    

1. 3.

   In the Properties Editor’s Modifier Properties window, apply the Screw and Subdivision Surface modifiers. Then for the subsurf modifier, change both the Render and Viewport values to 2 or also 3; finally, in this way, you will get the shape of the glass shown in Figure 2-70.

    

We have started to practice the theoretical information studied until now with these first exercises, and we’ve set a solid foundation for our future work with virtual modeling.