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10. The Future of Semiconductors and Electronic Systems

Conclusion

We are living in technologically extraordinary times and the potential for what can be accomplished has never been greater. Those of us that have experienced this remarkable revolution should not forget what an era we have witnessed. It is not unlike the man born in the mid-1800s who grew up riding a horse on muddy tracks and ended his life driving a model T. From the hulking processors of the 1950s that could fill a small house, to the pseudo-supercomputers that fit in our pockets, we too may find our end point in a world far different from where we began.

Whether you participate directly in the electronics industry, work in a related field, or are simply a curious individual seeking hard information about the foundational technology that powers our world, understanding how semiconductors are designed, manufactured, and integrated into systems can be exhilarating, enlightening, entertaining, and worthwhile. For such a complex subject though, it can be frustratingly difficult to form a base of comprehension without a formal education in electrical engineering. My purpose in writing this book was to offer a clear path to that knowledge, weaving together years of painstaking research so that anyone – whether you’re narrowly technical or don’t know silicon from silly putty – can understand semiconductor technology. I hoped to accomplish this by providing clear, visually engaging explanations of technical concepts going deep enough to develop a broad, holistic understanding of semiconductors, without getting lost in the vast web of theoretical weeds. If I have been successful at that, it is only due to the help of my own teachers and guides. If I have fallen short, it was not for lack of effort. Thank you for reading and may your own path through the world of semiconductors continue to please.

Appendix

OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework used in connectivity and telecommunications to describe the inner workings of electronic devices and networking systems.

Layer 7: The Application Layer describes what end users of a network actually see. This layer provides protocols like HTTP or FTP that enable software to present data to users as well as send and receive data between users and the underlying system. Examples of an application layer system include a web browser like Google Chrome, email apps, or a proprietary user interface (UI).

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer is where an application prepares information for presentation to the end user in the application layer or receives information from the application layer on its way to lower layers for further processing. Encryption and decryption happen at this layer (Imperva, 2020).

Layer 5: The Session Layer is the level at which computers and servers open communication channels with one another. This layer initiates and coordinates communication, though actual data transmission happens in layer 4, the Transport Layer (Cloudflare, n.d.).

Layer 4: The Transport Layer transports information between different computers and servers in the system. It receives outgoing data from one device, then breaks it into manageable segments before sending to further devices. The segments are then reassembled on the receiving end so they can be used at the Session Layer. You may be familiar with Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on top of layer 3 Internet protocol (IP). Once an IP address has been found in the network layer, TCP is the protocol responsible for delivering data to the end device. You can think of your computer’s IP address like a digital house address – it allows network participants on other computers to find you and deliver or request data and information.

Layer 3: The Network Layer does three things in a specific sequence. First, data segments from the transport layer are broken up into network packets. Second, those network packets are routed along the optimal path through the physical network using network addresses like Internet protocol (IP) to ensure those packets get to the right destination. Finally, those packets are reassembled on the receiving end back into segments that can be used by the transport layer (Raza, 2018).

Layer 2: The Data Link Layer establishes a connection between two nodes (physical access points like a computer, cell phone, or server) so that data can be transmitted between them. This layer is composed of two parts. The Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer checks for errors and identifies appropriate protocols (set of rules for how data should be transmitted). The Media Access Control (MAC) Layer is “below” the LLC and handles interaction with the physical layer. Examples of data link layer protocols include ethernet and Wi-Fi.

Layer 1: The Physical Layer (PHY) is responsible for the physical connection between nodes. This is where the data itself (a string of 1’s and 0’s) is transmitted to the underlying hardware. In practice, the PHY Layer is made up of an electronic circuit(s) that connects an electronic device to a network and is usually composed of mixed-signal and analog circuitry, RF components like transceivers and receivers, and DSP modules that can interpret and modify incoming and outgoing signals. Different kinds of chips can constitute the PHY layer, depending on the device and what it is connected to.

In highly integrated, space-constrained devices like SoCs, PHY and MAC layer functionality is often integrated into the same circuit, commonly referred to as a network interface controller. This network could be anything from cell service and Wi-Fi to a broadcast from your favorite TV or radio station.

An illustration of 7 layers. The layers arranged from the top are the application layer with user interface, presentation layer with encryption, session layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer with a physical interface to the hardware electrical system.

The OSI model comprises seven layers, from the physical layer up through the application layer

Semiconductor M&A Agreement Announcements – Details and Sources

A timeline depicts the semiconductor M and A agreement announcements and their details from 2011 to 2021. It represents Atheros and National Semiconductor in 2011, L S I in 2013, I B M and Spansion in 2014, Broadcom and Sandisk in 2015, ARM and Atmel in 2016, Cavium in 2017, and NUVIA in 2021.

Major Semiconductor M&A Agreement Announcements by Year
2011	• National Semiconductor acquired by Texas Instruments for $6.5B (Rao, 2011) • Atheros acquired by Qualcomm for $3.1B (Ziegler, 2011)
2012	• Low M&A announcement activity
2013	• LSI Corporation acquired by Avago Technologies for $6.6B (Broadcom, 2013)
2014	• International Rectifier Corporation acquired by Infineon Technologies AG for $3B (Business Wire, 2014) • RF Micro Devices (RFMD) and TriQuint merged to form Qorvo (Qorvo, 2014). The combined company was valued at $3B at the time of the announcement (Manners, 2015). • Spansion acquired by Cypress Semiconductor for $1.6B (Silicon Valley Business Journal, 2014) • IBM Chip Manufacturing Business acquired by GlobalFoundries for $1.5B (Brodkin, 2014)
2015	• Broadcom acquired by Avago Technologies for $37B (Broadcom, 2015) • SanDisk acquired by Western Digital for $19B (Semiconductor Digest, 2015) • Altera acquired by Intel for $16.7B (Intel Newsroom, 2015) • Freescale acquired by NXP for $12B (CNBC, 2015)
2016	• ARM acquired by Softbank for $32B (Kharpal, 2016) • Linear acquired by Analog Devices for $14.8B (Clark, 2016) • Atmel acquired by Microchip for $3.6B (Picker, 2016) • Intersil acquired by Renesas for $3.2B (Design & Reuse, 2016) • Fairchild acquired by ON Semiconductor for $2.4B (Ringle, 2016) • NXP acquisition announcement by Qualcomm for $47B (Etherington, 2016)
2017	• Cavium acquired by Marvell Technology for $6B (Palladino, 2017)
2018	• IDT acquired by Renesas for $6.7B (Renesas, 2018)
2019	• Cypress acquired by Infineon for $9.4B (Bender & Dummett, 2019) • Mellanox acquired by NVIDIA for $6.9B (NVIDIA Newsroom, 2019) • Marvell Wi-Fi Connectivity Business acquired by NXP for $1.7B (EPS News, 2019) • Quantenna Communications acquired by ON Semiconductor for $1.1B (Business Wire, 2019) • Intel’s Cellphone Modem Business acquired by Apple for $1B (EPS News, 2019)
2020	• ARM acquired by NVIDIA for $40B (NVIDIA Newsroom, 2020) • Xilinx acquired by AMD for $35B (AMD Newsroom, 2020) • Maxim Integrated acquired by Analog Devices for $21B (Analog Devices Newsroom, 2020) • Inphi acquired by Marvell Technology for $10B (Marvell Newsroom, 2020) • Intel NAND Memory Business acquired by SK Hynix for $9B (SK Hynix, 2020)
2021	• Dialog Semiconductor acquired by Renesas for $6B (James, 2021) • NUVIA acquired by Qualcomm for $1.4B (Qualcomm Newsroom, 2021)

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Glossary

Term	Definition
2.5D Packaging	A packaging structure where die are connected to a shared substrate, called an interposer, which in turn is connected to a PCB.
2D Transistors	Transistors with a flat gate structure that borders the channel on only one side. Examples include BJT and MOSFET transistors.
3D Packaging	A packaging structure where die are stacked directly on top of one another.
3D Transistors	Transistors with raised gate structures that border the channel on three or four sides. Examples include FinFET and GAA Transistors.
Actuator	Device that converts electrical signal back into real world signals. Active actuators require external power sources, while passive actuators require no power to function.
Address Bus	A bus interface that helps a processor find specific data.
Alternating Current (AC)	Electric current that periodically reverses its direction. It is best suited for transporting power over great distances and is often used in utility grids.
Amperes (amp or A)	The base unit for electric current. It measures how many electrons flow past a given point in a single second.
Amplifier	An electronic component that increases signal strength.
Amplitude	The height of an analog “wave” signal.
Analog Electronics	A field of electronics devoted to studying analog signals and the components that control and process them.
Analog Signals	Electromagnetic “wave” energy that can transmit information over empty space. Commonly classified by wavelength and frequency.
Analog-to-Digital (ADC)	A data converter that converts information encoded in analog signals into digital format.
AND Gate	A logic gate that requires two input conditions to be met before letting a signal pass through.
Anode	A negatively charged electrode comprising a material “with excess” electrons. It forms the negative side of a battery and donates electrons that flow through the circuit to a cathode on the other side.
Antenna	An electronic component that receives or transmits signals to other systems. Many antennas can act as both, alternating their function between transmitter and receiver.
Application Layer	Layer 7 in the OSI Model. It contains the user interface and describes what end users of a network actually see.
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)	A type of logic device that is designed and optimized for a specific use in a single system.
Application Specific Standard Part (ASSP)	A type of logic device that is designed and integrated into a system the same way Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) are. The term “standard parts” here just means that the same part can be used in many different products.
Application Specific Standard Products (ASSPs)	Analog ICs designed for a specific application, similar to the Logic segment of the SIA Framework.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)	Part of a central processor that performs all the numerical and logic-based operations necessary to run software programs the processor was intended to deliver.
ARM Architecture	A popular licensed ISA.
Artificial Intelligence	A broad field dedicated to building computer systems that can perform “intelligent” tasks normally reserved for humans. Machine Learning and Deep Learning are types of Artificial Intelligence.
Assembly	The multi-step process for enclosing and sealing a completed integrated circuit or semiconductor device inside of an IC package.
Assembly Language	Low-level programming language used to directly communicate with a computer’s hardware.
Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)	A chemical deposition technique that is used to deposit thin films on the surface of silicon wafers during the semiconductor manufacturing process. A type of Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD).
Backend Application Framework	Programming logic used by a software program to process data stored in a database for some useful purpose or end goal. The software back-end will usually connect with the software front-end to deliver useful output to the end user or users.
Back-End Design	A step in the semiconductor design flow after front-end design where a detailed list of instructions called a netlist is converted into a physical layout, which is tested and validated before sending to a semiconductor fab for manufacturing. Commonly known as Physical Design.
Back-End Manufacturing	The remaining stages in the semiconductor manufacturing process after wafer fabrication has been completed, including wafer bumping, wafer dicing, die bonding, external interconnect formation, encapsulation, sealing, and final testing.
Back-end of the Line (BEOL)	A part of the front-end manufacturing process where local and global interconnects form logic gates and connect wider system components. Also known as the “Post-Metal” part of the manufacturing process, since these interconnects are usually made from metals like copper or aluminum.
Back-End Validation	A stage in the back-end design process used to verify that a chip complies with all the rules of the chosen factory. Also known as Physical Verification or Back-End Verification.
Ball Grid Array (BGA)	A type of surface mount packaging technology that uses a grid of solder balls to connect a die-package assembly to a PCB.
Band Pass Filter	A filter that only lets signals in between two frequencies.
Band Reject Filter	A filter that only lets signals in outside of a range of frequencies.
Base	The middle part of a bipolar junction transistor that sits between the emitter and collector, similar to the gate in a MOSFET transistor.
Base Station	A wireless relay point that extends a service network to a specific area or coverage cell.
Battery	A power storage device that converts chemical energy stored in cells into electrical energy using electrochemical reactions.
Binary Computer Language	The pattern of “on” (1) and “off” (0) transistors that software developers use to communicate with computers.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)	A type of transistor that uses current to control the base. It has three parts – a base, emitter, and collector (similar to the source, gate, and drain in MOSFET transistors).
Bipolar Manufacturing	Specialized manufacturing technology used to fabricate specific types of integrated circuits and transistors.
Bit	The smallest unit of data that a computer can process. It can hold one of two values – on (1) or off (0) – and forms the basis of binary computer language.
Bit Rate	The number of bits that are processed over a given number of time. Often expressed in bits per second.
Block Diagram	A diagram that uses schematics and shapes to display the relationships between related objects in complex systems and processes. Commonly used in electrical engineering to depict circuits and other devices.
Boolean Logic	Mathematical logic that labels variables as either true or false. Common Boolean operators include “OR,” “AND,” and “NOT.”
Booting Instructions	Specific compute instructions that tell a computer to turn on.
Burning (to memory)	The process by which programmable read only memory (PROM) is programmed with a set of data.
Bus-bar	The bundle of wires used to connect a processor with the various parts of an electronic system. The term was primarily used in the early days of personal computing.
Bus Interface	The physical wires through which data travels between the different components of a system or PCB.
Cache Memory	A type of RAM positioned most closely to the CPU. Cache has the greatest speed requirement of any memory type and typically stores instructions waiting to be executed. Also known as CPU Memory.
Capacitor	A device used to regulate voltage and store electrical energy.
Carbon Nanotubes	Structures made of rolled up graphene sheets that may serve as alternatives to silicon transistors in the not-so-distant future.
Carrier Signal	Analog “wave” signal used to encode and transport digital information wirelessly over significant distances.
Cathode	A positively charged electrode comprising a material “in need” of electrons. It forms the positive side of a battery and accepts electrons flowing through the circuit from an anode on the other side.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)	A type of logic device and microprocessor that serves as the main processing center for most sophisticated computing systems.
Channel	The opening across a transistor gate through which current can flow.
Chemical Energy	Energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds that is released while undergoing a chemical reaction. Batteries convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
Chemical-Mechanical Planarization (CMP)	A type of removal process that uses a combination of chemical and mechanical force to smooth out the surface of a wafer.
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)	A category of deposition techniques used for depositing thin films on the surface of silicon wafers during the semiconductor manufacturing process. CVD takes place at temperatures significantly higher than PVD and uses coating materials in solid form.
Chip-Scale Packaging	Integrated Circuit (IC) Packaging that begins the packaging process before the wafer has been diced, resulting in a smaller die-package area that is approximately the size of the chip itself. Also known as Wafer-Level Packaging.
Chipset	The configuration of bus interfaces and the microprocessor they connect with. Also known as Chipset Architecture.
Chip Tapeout	The process of creating and sending a GDS file to the foundry. Also called simply “Tapeout.”
Circuit	A closed loop between any two differently charged bodies. In electronics, it most likely includes a power source that provides a current, power consuming components that use the current, and connecting wires that transport the current.
Circuit Node	Umbrella term for any individual element that an electrical signal can be sent to, whether that be interconnects, transistors, or other components that make up the circuit (not to be confused with manufacturing or process node).
Clean Room	Rooms in semiconductor fabs designed to house highly precise, ultrasensitive manufacturing processes. They often contain specialized air filtration systems that shrink the number of airborne particles to 1,000 times fewer than a sterile hospital operating room.
Clock Cycle	The amount of time between two pulses of a processor oscillator.
Clock Edge	The beginning and end points of a signal sent in a given clock cycle. Also known as Capture Edge.
Clock Frequency	The number of signal pulses per second generated by an oscillator used to synchronize the operations of a microprocessor. Measured in Hertz (Hz). Also known as clock rate or clock speed.
Clock-tree Synthesis (CTS)	A stage in the back-end design process where Physical Design Engineers make sure that the electrical signaling that delivers information around the circuit “clocks” evenly, or as intended, throughout the chip.
Cloud Computing	The use of pooled computing power stored in data centers and accessed via service networks.
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)	Design methodology and manufacturing processes that can facilitate production of both p-channel and n-channel transistors. It can also be used to refer to the circuitry developed using CMOS processes.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)	A multiple access standard technology that uses algorithms to code digitized voice bits or other data and transmit it across a wider channel (greater frequency range), which is then “de-coded” on the receiving end.
Collector	Where signal exits a bipolar junction transistor, similar to the drain in a MOSFET transistor.
Compiler	Device that translates high-level programming languages like Java and C# into machine-level language a computer can understand.
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)	A type of ISA that uses lengthy, multi-clock cycle instructions.
Compute Function	The end task performed based on a given set of instructions.
Compute Instructions	Software code that tells a computer or processor to execute a specific task. Also called simply “Instructions.”
Conductivity	The ease with which a material allows electric current to pass through it. The opposite of resistance.
Conductor	A material with high conductivity that allows electric current to pass through easily.
Control Bus	A bus interface that helps a processor control the operations of different parts of the system.
Control Unit	A part of the CPU that determines which instructions should be used.
Copper Hybrid Bonding	Die stacking technology that uses copper-to-copper interconnects to connect stacked die with greater interconnect density and lower resistance, enabling quicker data transfer and faster processing speeds than traditional Through Silicon Vias (TSVs).
Coverage Cell	Range of coverage for each base station. Cell types include Macro Cells, Micro Cells, Pico Cells, and In-Building Systems.
CPU Core	Individual microprocessors that make up a CPU, GPU, or other processor with multi-core architecture. Computing cores can be combined with other “core microprocessors” to tackle more complex tasks and run more taxing applications.
Critical Path	The longest path it takes for a signal to move through a circuit.
Crosstalk	A type of interference that occurs when energy from one signal inadvertently transfers to a neighboring transmission line.
Cryogenic Technology	Technology and equipment that allow cooling of materials to very low temperatures.
Current Leakage	Gradual unintended loss of electrical energy from a circuit. Also referred to as simply “Leakage.”
Data Bus	A bus interface that transmits data to a microprocessor.
Data Center	Giant rooms or warehouses full of hundreds or thousands of servers used to store data, host applications, and boost capacity for consumers and businesses without the need to invest and manage all their own infrastructure.
Data Converter	Electronic device that can convert data into different signal types.
Data Transfer Rate (DTR)	The number of bits moved from one place to another over a given period of time. Usually expressed as bits per second.
DDR (Double Data Rate RAM)	A type of DRAM with greatly increased data transfer speed compared with earlier generations of DRAM.
Debugging	A method of fixing design problems identified during the verification process.
Deep learning	A specific kind of machine learning that uses algorithms to build brain-like neuron networks called artificial neural networks.
Demodulator	A device used to decode and break down a received analog carrier wave signal and convert it into a digital signal that a computer can understand. Opposite of a modulator.
Deposition	A collection of processes that add materials called thin films to the surface of wafers during semiconductor manufacturing.
Design Rule Checkers (DRC)	An EDA Tool used to verify that a chip design complies with all the rules of the chosen foundry.
Design Verification	A key step in the silicon design process whereby a front-end design undergoes one or more verification processes to ensure it will perform as intended. These processes can include formal verification, functional verification, and/or emulation.
Device Driver	A special computer program that operates a particular kind of device or module within a larger computer system. Examples include a printer driver, a graphics driver, a sound card driver, and a network card driver.
Die	A single integrated circuit. See Integrated Circuit.
Die Bonding	A set of processes whereby freshly cut die are attached to either a packaging substrate or directly to a PCB. Also known as “Die Attach.”
Die Yield	A measurement of the number of functional die divided by the total number of potential die that make it to wafer probing.
Dielectric Loss	A type of loss interference that occurs due to issues with signal velocity.
Dielectric Materials	Materials used to insulate metal interconnects from one another and provide structural support throughout the circuit.
Die-Package Assembly	The combined structure of a die and the protective plastic or ceramic IC Package that encapsulates it.
Digital Electronics	A field of electronics devoted to studying digital signals and the components that control and process them.
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)	Processors used to process multimedia and real-world signals like audio, video, temperature, pressure, position, etc.
Digital Signal	Electric pulses that travel along transmission lines carrying information from place to place throughout an electrical system.
Digital-to-Analog (DAC)	A data converter that converts information encoded in digital signals into analog format.
Diode	A device that allows the flow of electricity in one direction. Less like a switch and more like a valve.
Direct Current (DC)	Electric current flowing in one direction only. It is best suited for powering lower-power end use applications like televisions and vacuum cleaners. Power adapters are needed to convert the alternating current (AC) power from a wall outlet to the direct current (DC) power needed to power household appliances.
Discrete Components	Independently manufactured base level functional components like transistors, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and others. Unlike functional components, which may be integrated onto a single substrate.
Distortion	A type of interference that occurs when the signal pattern is damaged or warped. In extreme cases, distortion can be so severe that incorrect data is delivered to the receiver.
Dopant	A chemical impurity added to a semiconductor to alter its electrical conductivity. Also called doping agent.
Doping	A technique in semiconductor manufacturing whereby chemical elements are added to a silicon wafer in order to give transistor sub-components special conductive properties that allow them to better control the flow of current.
Drain	Terminal through which current exits a transistor.
DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory)	A type of RAM that functions as the CPU’s short-term memory, allowing it to quickly access and process information. DRAM can hold more data than SRAM, but is slower overall.
Dry Etching	A type of removal process that uses plasma to wash away photoresist material that is no longer needed.
EDA (Electronic Design Automation)	A category of software tools used to design integrated circuits and other electronic systems. Also known as e-CAD or Electronic Computer Aided Design.
Electrical Energy	Energy drawn from the movement of electric charges.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)	Read only memory (ROM) that can be erased without a UV light tool, but can only be changed 1 byte at a time, making them relatively slow to erase and re-program.
Electrical Resistance	The difficulty with which a material allows electric current from passing through. Insulators have high resistance, while conductors have low resistance. The opposite of conductivity.
Electrical Signal	A series of electrical pulses that carry or encode information. In digital electronics, for example, binary computer sequences of 1’s and 0’s form a unique pattern that construes information from one part of the circuit to another. Also called Data Signal, or simply, Signal.
Electric Charge	A fundamental property of matter carried by subatomic particles like protons and electrons. The net ratio of protons to electrons determines an object’s overall charge.
Electric Current	A stream of electrically charged particles like electrons moving in the same direction through space or a conductive material.
Electric Field	A physical field surrounding electrically charged particles that can exert force on other charged particles. Also referred to simply as “Field.”
Electric Potential	A measurement of an object’s charge condition at a given point in time. Positively charged objects are considered to have higher potential than those that are negatively charged. Closely related to Potential Difference, which measures the difference in electric charge between two separate objects.
Electricity	A form of energy or set of physical phenomena resulting from the movement of electric charge. It is not technically a “thing,” but rather a term used to describe the relationship between charge and current.
Electrochemical Deposition (ECD)	A deposition technique for depositing thin films on the surface of silicon wafers during the semiconductor manufacturing process. It is used to produce thick metal layers on conductive substrates. Also called Electroplating.
Electrode	A conductor used to connect the metallic and non-metallic parts of a circuit. Examples include positively charged cathodes and negatively charged anodes that comprise each end of a battery.
Electromagnetic Force	One of the four fundamental forces of nature. It governs the interaction between electrically charged or magnetically polarized particles and is responsible for the attraction between opposite and rejection between similar charges.
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)	Signal interference arising from random environmental disturbances.
Electromagnetics	A field that explores the physics and interaction of electric fields with one another.
Electromagnetic Spectrum	The broad range of analog signals classified by wavelength and frequency.
Electromotive Force (EMF or E)	The electric tension between two points of unequal charge measured in Volts (V). The greater the difference in charge between two points, the greater the voltage that exists between them. Akin to “electric water pressure” pushing current down a wire. Also called Voltage or Potential Difference.
Electron	A negatively charged subatomic particle that can exist freely or orbiting the nucleus of an atom.
Electron Beam (E-beam) Lithography	A special kind of lithographic technology that uses beams of electrons instead of light to etch patterns on a wafer’s surface.
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)	The first programmable, electronic, general-purpose digital computer. It was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946, and was basically a giant room full of vacuum tubes taking up almost 1,800 square feet and weighing nearly 50 tons (U.S. Army, 1947).
Electron Mobility	The natural ability of electrons to move through metals and semiconductors when acted on by an electric field.
Emitter	Where signal enters a bipolar junction transistor, similar to the source in a MOSFET transistor.
Emulation	A method of verification whereby an FPGA emulator is programmed with a new circuit design so it can be tested and observed in the real world.
Encapsulation	A process whereby Surface Mount Technology (SMT) is used to mount a die onto the IC Package enclosure and seal it using encapsulant compounds or molded underfills to form a completed die-package assembly.
Epoxy Die Attach	A common die bonding process that uses specialized resins as a connecting adhesive.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)	Read only memory (ROM) that can be erased and re-written many times, but requires a restrictive process involving a specialized UV light tool to do so.
EUV Lithography	A special kind of lithographic technology that uses ultra violet light instead of more traditional light sources to etch patterns on a wafer’s surface. It has a significantly smaller wavelength than alternative sources and can thus etch smaller feature sizes.
Fab	A semiconductor manufacturing plant where integrated circuits and other electronic devices are manufactured. Also called Foundries.
Fabless Design Companies	Semiconductor companies that design, but do not manufacture their own chips.
Fab-Lite Model	A semiconductor business model whereby an IDM like Intel or Samsung produces some of their own chips, while outsourcing manufacturing for a portion of their products.
Failure Analysis	The practice of monitoring production and systematically analyzing low performance or key failures in order to drive process improvements and boost yields.
Failure Analysis Engineer	Engineer who monitors production and systematically analyzes low performance or key failures in order to drive process improvements and boost yields.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)	The government agency that strictly regulates who can use which frequency ranges (bands) for which types of communication, to prevent people from interfering with each other’s signals.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)	A type of transistor that uses an electric field to control the gate. It has three parts – a source, a gate, and a drain.
Filter	An electronic component that lets signals with intended frequencies get into the system and keeps signals with unintended frequencies out.
FinFET Transistor (Fin-Shaped Transistor)	A type of field effect transistor with a raised gate structure covering the channel on three sides, giving the transistor greater control over the flow of current, consuming less power, and reducing the amount of current leakage.
Flip Chip Bonding	Process in Flip-Chip Packaging whereby die are flipped over and soldered to a ball grid array or directly to the PCB, forming interconnects within the chip’s surface area and increasing the overall speed of the system.
Floor Planning	A stage in the back-end design process where Physical Design Engineers decide where each block or module should be located in the overall system.
Flywire Connection	Metal wire used to connect transistors to one another during the early evolution of the semiconductor industry.
Formal Verification	A method of verification that uses mathematical reasoning and proofs in lieu of a simulation to verify that an RTL design will perform its desired function.
Form Factor	Device size, shape, and area.
Foundry	A company that strictly performs semiconductor manufacturing. The term can also refer to the semiconductor manufacturing plants themselves. Also called Fabs.
FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)	Specialized integrated circuits that can be configured or programmed by a customer or designer after the chip has already been manufactured.
Frequency	The number of times an analog signal wave completes an up and down cycle, or repeats itself, over a fixed period.
Frequency Band	A given range of frequencies used for a specific purpose or application. Also known as Bandwidth or Channel.
Front-End Design	A step in the semiconductor design flow where system requirements are gathered and a detailed schematic is developed and verified before moving on to the back-end design process. Commonly referred to as RTL Design.
Front-End Manufacturing	The multi-step process prior to packaging and assembly whereby a circuit pattern is etched onto a silicon wafer and components are connected to one another through global and local interconnects. Also called Wafer Fabrication.
Front-end of the Line (FEOL)	A part of the front-end manufacturing process where transistors are directly etched into the wafer itself. Also known as the “Pre-Metal” part of the manufacturing process.
Front-Side Bus (FSB)	A bus interface that connects the CPU to the Northbridge, which connects to components that have the highest performance requirements, like memory and graphics modules.
Functional Components	Base level components like transistors and resistors that are integrated and manufactured on a single substrate. Unlike discrete components, which must be manufactured separately.
Functional Scaling	Performance improvements drawn from maximizing utilization within a given generation of chip technology, holding feature sizes and manufacturing process nodes equal.
Functional Verification	A type of verification that simulates front-end designs using SystemVerilog HDL code to verify the design will do what it is supposed to do in any possible condition.
Gain	When a signal gets bigger and more powerful after passing through an electronic component like an amplifier.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)	A type of semiconductor compound made from gallium and arsenide that is used to make electronic devices. Though fragile and more difficult to manufacture than silicon, it is commonly used for specialized applications like high-frequency signal processing in cell phones and light emitting diodes for lasers and lighting systems.
Gallium Nitride (GaN)	A type of semiconductor compound made from gallium and nitrogen that is used to make electronic devices. Though fragile and more difficult to manufacture than silicon, it is used for specialized applications like high-efficiency power transistors, RF components, lasers, photonics, and light emitting diodes.
Gate	The base of a transistor that sits between the source and drain. It protects the channel and decides whether to let a signal pass through.
Gate All Around (GAA) Transistor	A type of field effect transistor with a raised gate structure covering the channel on all four sides, giving the transistor greater control over the flow of current, consuming less power, and reducing the amount of current leakage.
Gate Length	The distance between the source and the drain inside a transistor.
GDS ll (Graphic Data System)	A standardized format that is used to send a finished design to the fab at the end of the IC design cycle.
Geometric Scaling	Performance improvements drawn from shrinking feature sizes and transistor gate lengths across entire generations of integrated circuits.
Germanium	A type of semiconductor element used to make electronic devices (Ge32 on the periodic table). It was used to make transistors in the early days before being replaced by cheaper, higher-performance silicon transistors. It is still used for specific devices like high-frequency and high-power devices, as well as some audio electronics.
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)	The primary standard for communication networks globally. GSM is built using TDMA technology.
Graphene	An incredibly strong material with a thickness of only 1 atom. Graphene could potentially solve the quantum tunneling problems that silicon suffers from.
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)	A special kind of processor best known for driving the graphics and 3D visual processing in electronic devices. Unlike CPUs, GPUs use parallel processing to perform calculations.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)	Secondary memory built from a magnetic disk with a read/write arm that can store data indefinitely.
Hardware Abstraction Layer	A layer in our macro system stack that provides the software-to-hardware interface.
Hardware Accelerator	Specialized hardware module or circuitry optimized for specific computing tasks. Also known as simply “Accelerator.”
Hardware Description Language (HDL)	Specialized computer “programming” languages used to describe the physical structure of ICs and electronic systems. VHDL, Verilog, and SystemVerilog are examples of widely used HDLs.
Hardware Layer	A layer in our macro system stack that includes the core processing hardware and circuitry that forms the base of an electronic system.
Harvard Architecture	A theoretical macroarchitecture that parses instructions and data into two separate memory banks, with a unique bus for each type of input.
Hertz (Hz)	The base unit for clock frequency. Equal to one clock cycle per second.
Heterogeneous Integration	A system integration strategy whereby numerous chips are integrated with one another either on the same board (PCB) or within the same package.
High Bandwidth Memory (HBM)	A 2.5D Memory Device structure that splits core logic into separate parts, stacking the memory die on top of one of them while leaving the other on its own.
High Pass Filter	A filter that only lets signals in above a certain frequency.
High Performance Computing (HPC)	The practice of using supercomputers or computer clusters to deliver greater processing speeds.
High-Level Synthesis (HLS)	A stage in the silicon design process whereby an RTL design written in an HDL like VHDL or Verilog is converted into a design netlist ready for back-end physical design. This is the stage that marks the end of front-end design and the beginning of back-end design.
Huang’s Law	An observation by NVIDIA’s CEO, Jensen Huang, that GPU AI Processing power has doubled every year since 2012.
Human brain project (HBP)	A widely recognized research project focused on building our understanding of neuroscience and computing.
Hybrid Memory Cube (HMC)	A 3D Memory Device structure where DRAM memory chips are vertically stacked on top of a logic device and connected to one another with a Through Silicon Via (TSV).
I/O Controller Hub (ICH)	The interface between Northbridge and Southbridge.
I/O Density	The concentration of I/O interconnects over a given amount of die surface area. Higher I/O densities reduce the amount of processing time it takes to move a signal, or information, from one part of an electronic system to another and can save valuable silicon real estate in stacked-die configurations.
IC Packaging	A special enclosure designed to protect the underlying circuit or semiconductor device. Typically made from plastic or ceramic materials.
lll-V elements	Elements from group lll and V in the periodic table. Such elements are particularly well suited for making semiconductors and electronic devices. Examples include silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide.
Impurities	A chemical impurity added to a semiconductor to alter its electrical conductivity. Also called impurities.
Inductor	A device that uses magnetic fields to regulate voltage and control the flow of electricity. They are often found as discrete components in power supplies.
Inking	A process whereby defective die are often marked with a black dot so they can be tossed out or sold at a discounted price if still semi-functional.
Instruction Pipelining	A method of speeding up a task by breaking up a lengthy workflow into smaller constituent parallel tasks that can boost processing speed without requiring additional process flows.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)	Macroarchitecture that defines which types of instructions a given system must be able to perform.
Insulator	A material with low conductivity that prevents electric current from passing through easily.
Integrated Circuit (IC)	An electronic circuit formed from a bunch of transistors and other functional components fit together on a single block of substrate (semiconductor base material). Integrated circuits were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in the 1960s.
Integrated Device Manufacturers (IDMs)	Semiconductor companies which design, manufacture, and sell their own integrated circuits.
Interconnects (I/O)	Connection points tying separate parts of the system to one another. Within a given IC, “pre-metal” local interconnects might help form logic gates and other core circuitry at the base of the circuit, while higher-level “post-metal” global interconnects connect broader parts of the chip to one another. System interconnects might connect an entire chip through the IC package to the rest of the system.
Interference	Physical disruptions that can degrade the accuracy of a signal that results in data loss, accuracy issues, or potential system failure. Common forms of interference include noise, crosstalk, distortion, and loss.
Interposer	An intermediate substrate that sits on top of a base substrate and serves as a connection between two or more die to one other and to the rest of the system.
Ion Implantation	A part of the doping process whereby dopants or impurities are shot under the surface of the wafer. Also known as “Ion Introduction.”
Ionizing	Electromagnetic radiation with sufficient energy to detach electrons from atoms and molecules. This is the kind of dangerous radiation emitted by nuclear power plants and can be very dangerous.
Joule’s Law	An equation describing the relationship between power, voltage, and current. It is named after English physicist James Prescott Joule, who discovered it in 1840. Power (P) = Voltage (E) x Current (I).
Kernel	A computer program at the core of a computer operating system that sits between the operating system and the hardware.
Kinetic Energy	A form of energy derived from motion, that is, motion energy.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)	A special kind of semiconductor device that emits light when electric current passes through it.
Line Yield	A measurement of the number of wafers that successfully make it to wafer probing without being thrown out. Also known as “Wafer Yield.”
Logic Design Engineer	Engineer responsible for implementing the System Architect’s vision by designing a circuit’s core logic and functionality using register transfer level (RTL) design language.
Logic Design (RTL Design)	The basic circuitry design of a digital computer based on Boolean logic gates. Also known as RTL Design.
Logic Device	Integrated circuit that is custom designed for a specific application. The Logic IC segment in the SIA framework encompasses all non-micro component digital logic, including application specific ICs (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), and more versatile, but application-specific, digital logic devices.
Logic Gate	Units made from transistors that apply Boolean logic to input data signals and block or release output signal to the next gate in the system. There are seven types of Logic gates in total – AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
Loss	A type of interference that occurs when energy is dispersed into the environment for a number of reasons. Three kinds of loss include Resistive Loss, Dielectric Loss, and Radiation Loss.
Low Pass Filter	A filter that only lets signals in below a certain frequency.
Machine Learning	A method of computation that uses algorithms to analyze and learn from patterns in data, improving the ability of the computer to adapt and improve. It is part of the broader field of Artificial Intelligence.
Macroarchitecture	High-level rules and structural guidelines used to define entire chip families. Describes the way in which instructions are delivered from programmer to the computer. Also known as Instruction Set Architecture (ISA).
Matrix	A vast array of numbers used for machine learning computations.
Memory	A type of circuit whose primary function is to store data and information for use in processing centers of the larger system.
Memory Hierarchy	The sequential structure of memory organized by proximity to the core system processor. From closest to farthest, the memory hierarchy includes CPU registers, cache memory, RAM working memory, ROM long-term storage memory, and external interconnects like the mouse and keyboard.
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)	A type of field effect transistor that uses voltage to control the gate. It has three parts – a source, a gate, and a drain.
Microarchitecture	Describes the way high-level macroarchitecture or a specific instruction set architecture (ISA) is actually implemented into the hardware itself.
Micro Components	All non-custom digital devices that can be plugged into another system and used for computation or signal processing, like generic digital subcomponents. Examples include microprocessors, microcontrollers, and digital signal processors (DSPs).
Microcontroller	A computer processor that performs specific functions and is integrated with memory and I/O connections all on one chip. Microcontrollers are smaller and less powerful than microprocessors and can serve as plug-and-play computing power for simple operations.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS)	Tiny mechanical device that operates gears or levers at a microscopic scale and is manufactured using semiconductor fabrication techniques.
Micron	One millionth of a meter.
Microprocessor (MPU)	A computer processor that performs a general computing function and requires an external bus to connect to memory and other peripheral components.
Microwaves	A special set of analog “wave” signals that sit between a range of frequencies on the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwaves have higher frequencies than radio waves, but smaller frequencies than infrared and visible light.
Middleware Layer	A layer in our macro system stack that contains the back-end application framework and software logic powering a given software program.
Mixed-Signal Device	Electronic device that contains both digital and analog circuitry.
Modem	A device with a modulator and a demodulator that can execute modulation and demodulation algorithms at the same time, allowing it to convert between analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signals quickly.
Modulation	The process by which digital information is encoded into an analog carrier wave signal by altering its frequency or amplitude. Modulation is what allows digital information to be sent wirelessly.
Modulator	A device used to encode an analog carrier wave signal with digital information. Opposite of a Demodulator.
Molded Underfills	Special materials used to help encapsulate finished die in IC Packaging to form completed die-package assemblies.
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)	A physical deposition technique that used to deposit thin films on the surface of silicon wafers during the semiconductor manufacturing process. A type of Physical Vapor Deposition.
Monolithic Integration (Homogenous Integration)	A system integration strategy whereby numerous functional modules are included on a single integrated circuit, yielding a fully functional system called an SoC (System-on-Chip).
Moore’s Law	The 1965 prediction by Intel’s founder, Gordon Moore, that the number of transistors that could be fit on a microchip would double every two years at the same time that computer costs were halved.
Multi-Chip-Modules (MCM)	A type of packaging structure that integrates multiple die into a single package. While System-in-Packages (SiPs) integrate die both horizontally (2D) and vertically (2.5/3D), multichip modules have a 2D structure, with all modules connecting to the same underlying packaging substrate.
Multi-core Architecture	A processor structure that combines multiple computing cores to tackle more complex tasks and run more taxing applications.
Multiple Access Standard Technology	A type of technology that allows service providers to route multiple calls through the same base station, or across a given amount of bandwidth.
Multiplex	Simultaneous transmission of several messages or data signals using a single channel of communication or bandwidth.
NAND Flash Memory	A type of EEPROM that can erase information, write data in chunks (as opposed to 1 byte at a time) and works considerably faster than EPROM and is the primary type of ROM used to store data in electronic devices today.
Nanometer (nm)	The base unit for measuring feature sizes in microelectronics. Equal to one billionth of a meter.
Nanosheet Transistor	A type of GAA field effect transistor with a raised gate structure and wide “sheet-like” channels.
Nanowire Transistor	A type of GAA field effect transistor with a raised gate structure and thin “wire-like” channels.
Netlist	A detailed list of the electronic components in a circuit and all the nodes to which they are connected. It is derived from a front end design written in register transfer level (RTL) code and used to guide back-end physical design.
Neuromorphic Computing Technology	Technology that models biological processing centers like the nervous system in an effort to create a new computing paradigm.
Neurotransistor	Transistors that can simultaneously store and process information, while greatly improving processing speed, as well as exhibiting characteristics of plasticity and learning like that of a human brain.
Neutron	A neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus of every atom along with protons. It contains about the same mass as its proton counterparts.
NMOS Transistor	A transistor made of a p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors.
Noise	A type of interference that occurs when energy that is not part of the desired signal interferes with the signal being transmitted.
Non-Volatile Memory	Memory that can store data without access to power. Non-Volatile Memories are used for permanent data storage.
Northbridge	A bus interface that connects the CPU to components that have the highest performance requirements, like memory and graphics modules via the Front-Side Bus (FSB).
N-Type Semiconductor	A block of semiconductor material that has undergone the doping process and now contains an extra electron.
Ohms (Ω)	The base unit for electrical resistance. It measures the amount of opposition to the flow of current in an electrical circuit.
Open Source	A publicly accessible standard or technology that does not require licensing fees to use in a unique product or service. In hardware, open source ISAs like RISC-V can be used as a base macroarchitecture that design teams could build a circuit around. In software, tools like GitHub provide easy access to open source software built by other users and Open Source software companies.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model	A conceptual framework used in connectivity and telecommunications to describe the inner workings of electronic devices and networking systems.
Optical Chips	Circuits that use light and photons as the main signal carrier between and within electronic devices.
Optical Interconnects	Interconnect technology used for chip-to-chip data transmission and communication. Could be a strong alternative to traditional copper wiring.
Optical Transceiver	Specific kind of photonic integrated circuit (PIC) used by data centers to transmit information more effectively and efficiently across greater distances than copper cabling.
Optoelectronics	Semiconductor devices that produce and receive light waves.
OR Gate	A logic gate that requires one of two input conditions to be met before letting a signal pass through.
OSAT (Outsourced Assembly, Test, and Packaging Suppliers)	Semiconductor companies that specialize in back-end manufacturing assembly, test, and packaging activities. They are largely based in East Asia due to significant labor cost advantages.
Oscillator	Any signal emitting device. In wireless electronics, oscillators are the source of RF wave signals used as a “carrier” for the information being transmitted.
OSI System Stack	Seven layers in the OSI model representing concentric layers of abstraction. From hardware to user, the stack layers include the Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer, and Application Layer.
Oxidation	Process whereby a wafer is heated in a furnace along with oxide gas in order to help deposit thin film material layers on its surface.
Package-Die Assembly	The final product resulting from the assembly process. It comprises a finished die encapsulated by an IC Package.
Pads	Designated areas on circuit boards or integrated circuits used for things like soldering, wire bonding, or chip mounting.
Parallel Interface	Interconnect that runs multiple wires between two components and transmits multiple bits at the same time. Examples include DDR (Double Data Rate Bus) and PCI (Peripheral Component Interface Bus).
Parallel Processing	A form of computation that breaks down more complex problems into smaller constituent parts.
Parametric Testing	A testing methodology that measures several key circuit parameters on a test circuit structure to ensure that the wafer fabrication process is performing as expected.
Parasitics	Unwanted interference from other components. Such problems can arise when components are clustered too closely together.
Patterning	A collection of processes that shape or alter the materials on the surface of wafers during semiconductor manufacturing.
Peripheral Buses	Lower performance non-Northbridge bus interfaces like Ethernet, USB, PCI, BIOS, etc.
Photolithography	A key manufacturing process that shines specialized energy sources like electron beams or ultraviolet light through a photomask or series of photomasks in order to imprint circuitry patterns on the surface of silicon wafers that constitute individual die. Photolithography processes are performed in an expensive machine called a stepper.
Photomask	A semi-transparent plate used in the lithography process to etch patterns and circuit features onto a wafer. A specialized light source is shone through the photomask, which acts like a stencil and reacts with the exposed photoresist that coats the surface below. Also known as simply “Mask.”
Photonically Optimized Embedded Microprocessors (POEM) Project	A DARPA-funded project commercializing photonic chip technology.
Photonic Integrated Circuit (PIC)	A chip that performs optical functions in areas like fiber communications, optical sensing applications like LIDAR, etc.
Photoresist	A chemical used during photolithography that breaks down in reaction to light. When we target photoresist with a reactive light source, we can etch circuit patterns on the surface of a wafer in the shape of our photomask(s).
Physical Design	A multi-stage process taking a front-end design through the numerous stages of the back-end design process until it’s ready for manufacturing.
Physical Design Engineer	Engineer responsible for taking a front-end design through the numerous stages of the back-end design process until it’s ready for manufacturing.
Physical layer (PHY Layer)	Layer 1 in the OSI model and Layer 2 in our Macro System Stack. It is the layer at which the data itself (a string of 1’s and 0’s) is transmitted to the underlying processing hardware.
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)	A category of deposition techniques used for depositing thin films on the surface of silicon wafers during the semiconductor manufacturing process. PVD takes place at temperatures significantly lower than CVD and uses coating materials in gaseous form.
Place-and-Route	A stage in the back-end design process where Physical Design Engineers decide exactly where to put all the electronic components then integrate all the wiring required to connect them to one another.
Planar Manufacturing	A set of manufacturing methods and processes that allows companies to fabricate thousands of integrated circuits at the same time and on the same substrate (silicon wafer). Planar manufacturing was invented by Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor in the 1960s.
Platform Layer	A layer in our macro system stack that contains the operating system supported by Kernel and Device Drivers.
PMOS Transistor	A transistor made of an n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors.
Post-Metal Cycling	A set of common deposition, patterning, removal, and physical property alteration processes used repeatedly during the back-end of the line (BEOL) portion of the wafer fabrication process whereby metallic interconnect materials, usually made from aluminum or copper, are deposited in layers separated by dielectric materials to form metal interconnects between individual components and broader system circuitry.
Potential Difference	The electric tension between two points of unequal charge measured in Volts (V). The greater the difference in charge between two points, the greater the voltage that exists between them. Akin to “electric water pressure” pushing current down a wire. Also called Voltage or Electromotive Force.
Power	The work done by an electric circuit when an electric current is converted into some useful form of energy.
Power Converter	A device that converts between Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) or between currents of the same type for voltage regulation purposes.
Power Density	A measure of the amount of power output per unit volume. The measure is closely related to the amount of heat that a circuit can remove, which can limit processor performance at smaller transistor sizes.
Power Distribution Network (PDN)	A network of metal planes, voltage regulators, and power converters that transport charges and electric voltage from a power source to the different processing centers of an integrated circuit or electronic system.
Power Engineer	An engineer responsible for building a robust power distribution network, including voltage regulators, power converters, and planes to ensure power is delivered where it needs to be, while ensuring voltage is never too high or too low at any point in the system.
Power Integrity	A measure of the quality of voltage flow throughout a system.
Power Management Integrated Circuit (PMIC)	Type of integrated circuit that is responsible for regulating power and voltage in a system or device.
Power Management Unit (PMU)	A microcontroller that regulates the power and voltage within an electronic system.
Pre-Metal Cycling	A set of common deposition, patterning, removal, and physical property alteration processes that are used during the front-end of the line (FEOL) portion of the wafer fabrication process whereby transistors are directly etched into the wafer itself.
Primary Memory	The main working memory of the computer. Primary memories can be accessed more quickly by the processor but have limited capacity and are usually more expensive than secondary memories.
Printed Circuit Board (PCB)	A laminated board on which integrated circuits and other electronic components can be soldered and connected to one another that provides mechanical support to the overall system.
PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)	Read only memory (ROM) that can be programmed after manufacturing, but cannot be changed once programmed.
Proton	A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of every atom along with neutrons. It contains about the same mass as its neutron counterparts.
Pure-Play Foundries	Semiconductor companies that manufacture, but do not design their own chips.
P-Type Semiconductor	A block of semiconductor material that has undergone the doping process and now contains one fewer electron.
Quantum Computing	A field of computing and computing systems that harnesses the superposition of qubits in conjunction with a phenomenon called quantum entanglement, where two particles are tied to one another over a distance, to execute exponentially more complex calculations than modern computers can handle. Particularly well suited to applications in cryptography, machine learning, big data, medicine, and materials science.
Quantum Entanglement	A phenomenon where two particles are tied to one another over a distance. Entanglement is a key phenomenon used by quantum computers to execute exponentially more complex calculations than modern computers can handle.
Quantum Supremacy	A point in time when a quantum computer that functions according to the laws of quantum physics performs better at a given task than a classical computer that functions using classical physics like Isaac Newton’s law of motion.
Quantum Transistor	Transistors that harness the power of quantum tunneling and entanglement to process and store information.
Quantum Tunneling	A quantum phenomena whereby an electron can disappear on one side of a physical barrier and turn up on the other.
Qubit	A quantum computational unit that can exist as a 0, 1, or a combination of both at any given time.
Radiation	The emission or transmission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Radiation Loss	A type of loss interference that occurs due to system sealing issues.
Radio Frequency (RF)	A special set of analog “wave” signals that sit between a range of frequencies on the electromagnetic spectrum. Commonly used for broadcasting, networking, and wireless communication.
Random Access Memory (RAM)	Memory that allows a processor to both read or “take” input data and write or “deliver” output data to memory. RAM is used as working memory for running programs and storing temporary data close to the CPU for quick access.
Rapid Thermal Annealing	A property alteration manufacturing process that helps activate dopants by heating silicon wafers to extremely high temperatures for a brief period of time.
Read Only Memory (ROM)	Non-volatile memory that can be programmed only once and cannot be easily repurposed. ROM is used for permanent data storage.
Receiver	A device that accepts or receives an electrical signal.
Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)	A type of ISA that uses standard, shorter single-clock cycle instructions.
Reference Clock	A clock used by digital processors to coordinate processing done by different functional blocks and ensure proper timing across the system. Also called simply “Clock.”
Register	The physical entry and exit point for data flow to and from a CPU to the rest of the system. Each CPU has a fixed number of registers through which data can flow, with typical register capacities measuring 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bits “wide.”
Register Transfer Level (RTL)	A low-level design abstraction used to model digital circuit designs using registers and logic operators. Also known as Logic Design.
Removal Processes (for Manufacturing)	A collection of processes that remove materials called thin films from the surface of wafers during semiconductor manufacturing.
Resistive Loss	A type of loss interference that occurs due to transmission line conductivity issues.
Resistor	A device used to impede the flow of electricity through a circuit.
RF Integrated Circuit (RFIC)	A specific kind of circuit used to transmit and receive wireless RF signals.
Scribe Line	A space in between each die that provides space for sawing during wafer dicing at the end of wafer processing and the front-end manufacturing process.
Secondary Memory	Slower memory that can only be accessed through interconnects and intermediaries. Also known as Backup Memory or Auxiliary Memory.
Semiconductor	A material with moderate conductivity between that of an insulator and a conductor. A balanced conductivity profile makes semiconductors particularly well suited to controlling and manipulating current in electronic devices.
Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA)	A leading semiconductor trade association and lobbying group founded in 1977. They perform deep, wholistic industry analysis of key developments and trends.
Semiconductor IP Companies	Semiconductor companies that design and license common modules and cell libraries that can be used by circuit designers to generate even more complex designs.
Semiconductor Value Chain	The core sequence of value-added activities that result in a finished semiconductor product, from initial customer need through chip design, manufacturing, packaging, assembly, system integration, and final product delivery.
Sensor	Device that detects a real-world input like heat or pressure and converts it into electrical signals. Active sensors require external power sources, while passive sensors require no power to function.
Serial Interface	Interconnect that transmits and receives data between two components across a single wire one bit at a time, but at much higher speed than parallel interfaces. Examples include PCIe (PCI Express Bus), USB (Universal Serial Bus), SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Bus), and Ethernet Bus.
Serial Processing	A form of computation that runs through tasks very quickly, but can only complete instructions in order, one after the other.
Shuttle Run	A Foundry manufacturing run that produces the designs of multiple customers at the same time.
Signal Compression	Techniques and algorithms used by DSPs to shrink the amount of bandwidth required to send a given piece of information.
Signal Integrity Engineer	An engineer who conducts electromagnetic simulations and analysis to identify and resolve potential signal integrity issues before they arise.
Signal Integrity	A measure of the quality of an electrical signal.
Silica (Silicon Dioxide)	Compound that is melted down and shaped into cylindrical ingots that are subsequently sliced into thin, unfinished wafers.
Silicon	A type of semiconductor element used to make the vast majority of integrated circuits and electronic devices (Si14 on the periodic table). It is inexpensive and abundant, comprising roughly 30% of the Earth’s crust.
Silicon Cycle	A semiconductor business cycle whose length is defined by the difference between a high and low point in industry revenues and company valuations. The term is used to describe the highly volatile nature of the semiconductor industry, with wide swings in annual revenues.
Silicon Germanium (SiGe)	A potential new channel material that could help mitigate electron mobility issues.
Solder Balls	Metallic balls that connect die to a substrate or PCB. Also called “Wafer Bumps.”
Solid State Drive (SSD)	Secondary memory that uses interconnected NAND Flash memory chips instead of a magnetic disk and can store memory indefinitely.
Source	Terminal through which current enters a transistor.
Southbridge	A bus interface that connects the Northbridge to all the lower priority components and interfaces like Ethernet, USB, and other low-speed buses via I/O Controller Hub (ICH).
Spiking Neural Networks (SNN)	Neural networks that mimic the structure of neuron networks in human brains.
Sputtering Gas	Specialized gas used to knock atoms off the sputtering target in order to form thin films on a wafer’s surface during the deposition process in semiconductor manufacturing.
Sputtering Target	A material used to create thin films on the surface of a wafer during deposition in semiconductor manufacturing. It is placed across from the wafer in a vacuum chamber and is targeted with sputtering gas, which knocks lose atoms from the Sputtering Target materials and onto the wafer surface.
SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory)	A type of RAM that functions as the CPU’s short-term memory, allowing it to quickly access and process information. SRAM is faster than DRAM, but can hold less data.
Static Timing Analysis (STA)	A common simulation method to compute and verify the expected timing of digital circuits.
Stepper	A machine used to align photomask(s) over a wafer during the photolithography stage of the semiconductor manufacturing process.
Strain Engineering	A type of engineering in which the atoms in a given material are stretched apart from one another, allowing electrons to pass through more easily and reducing heat release from a circuit.
Strong Force	One of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is responsible for holding the neutrons and protons that comprise the nucleus together despite protons having similar charges.
Substrate	Widely defined as an underlying substance or base layer. In electronics, it usually refers to the semiconductor base material that constitute wafers used to manufacture integrated circuits, most commonly made from silicon.
Superposition	A property of quantum particles that enables them to exist in two states (in this case 0 and 1) at the same time.
Surface Mount Technology (SMT)	An assembly process whereby electronic components are attached to the surface of a PCB.
Synchronous Design	A design methodology that uses a common “clock” across all circuits so that all signals reach the relevant parts of the circuit at the right time.
System Architect	Tenured engineer responsible for developing a high-level idea of what chip their team is trying to design based on user requirements or market need and determine what technologies, materials, and components will be used to build it.
System Bus	A collection of three bus interfaces – the data bus, address bus, and control bus – that collectively control the flow of information to and from a CPU or microprocessor.
System Integration	The process of attaching a final circuit or die-package assembly into an end product or device.
System-in-Package (SiP)	A type of packaging structure that integrates multiple die into a single package. Unlike Multi-Chip-Modules (MCMs) that are limited to 2D structure with all die connecting to the same underlying substrate, System-in-Packages (SiP’s) have both horizontal (2D) and vertical (2.5/3D) structures, with some die stacking on top of other die connected through silicon vias (TSVs) to the underlying substrate.
System Level Architecture	A high-level outline of a chip’s intended purpose based on user requirements or market need and a rough blueprint of system modules, design technologies, materials, and components that will be used to build it.
System on Chip (SoC)	A type of integrated circuit (IC) that includes an entire system on a single substrate.
Systems Companies	End product companies like Apple or Google that have started designing their own custom processors in-house.
SystemVerilog	A hardware description language used for front-end design verification.
Technology Node (or Process Node or just Node)	A given generation of semiconductor manufacturing technology comprising improved equipment, new materials, and process improvements that enable chip makers to make chips with smaller transistors (measured in nm) than prior nodes.
Testbench	Specialized computer code used during FPGA or ASIC verification or simulation used to verify that the correct outputs are produced from a given set of inputs.
Thin Films	Layers of material added to the surface of a wafer during the deposition process in semiconductor manufacturing. They form the clay in which circuit patterns and features can be etched during later steps.
Through Silicon Via (TSV)	Vertical interconnects that tie together stacked die to one another and the substrate below.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)	A multiple access standard technology that uses multiplexing to break up and deliver calls in synchronous chunks, maximizing utilization of existing bandwidth.
Tracks	Conductive paths on circuit boards used to connect electronic system components to one another.
Transfer Molding	A process that uses melted resin to encapsulate a completed die or other semiconductor components in an IC Package.
Transistor	Electronic switch that stops electricity from passing or allows current to flow through. Transistors are strung together to make logic gates and form the backbone of digital electronics.
Transmission Line	Metallic lines or traces that carry information from place to place throughout an electrical system.
Transmitter	A device that sends or transmits an electrical signal.
Ultraviolet Light Processing (UVP)	A property alteration manufacturing process that modified a wafer’s electrical properties by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
User Interface	The connection point where the end user interacts with a given system.
UVM (Universal Verification Methodology)	A way of conducting verification in which Verification Engineers build a model of each system module, then compare outputs of the design against this model to determine if the circuit is behaving as expected.
Vacuum Chamber	A piece of equipment used to reduce the presence of contaminant particles during the deposition process in semiconductor manufacturing.
Vacuum Tube	A glass or metal enclosure containing electrodes that can control the flow of electrons. Vacuum tubes were used for early computing applications like the ENIAC in the 1940s, but due to their fragility were swiftly displaced with the advent of transistors. They are still used today in select applications like microwave ovens and audio equipment.
Validation Engineer	Engineer who uses EDA tools like design rule checkers (DRC) to validate that a chip is ready for manufacturing.
Verification Engineer	Engineer responsible for verifying front-end design will function as expected.
Verilog	A hardware description language used for front-end digital design. Similar to VHDL, but is newer and based on Ada and Pascal programming languages.
VHDL	A hardware description language used for front-end digital design. Similar to Verilog, but based on C programming language.
Via Structures	Vertically oriented metallic interconnects that tie together components at separate levels of the die surface.
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)	The process of designing integrated circuits with very high volumes of functional components (millions of transistors).
Volatile Memory	Memory that can store data only with access to power.
Volt	The base unit for voltage. It measures the amount of electrical pressure between two points due to the difference in electric potential that exists between them.
Voltage	The electric tension between two points of unequal charge measured in Volts (V). The greater the difference in charge between two points, the greater the voltage that exists between them. Akin to “electric water pressure” pushing current down a wire. Also called Electromotive Force or Potential Difference.
Voltage Regulator	A power supply component designed to maintain a steady supply of voltage across varying environmental changes and conditions. Examples include DC/DC converters, PMUs (power management units), Buck converters (a specific type of DC/DC converters), Boost and Flyback converters.
Von Neumann Architecture	A theoretical macroarchitecture with a single bus connecting the CPU with a single memory bank.
Wafer	A round, thin slice of semiconductor material used to manufacture sheets of integrated circuits most commonly made from silicon crystal. They typically have a hard cut edge for handling purposes during the manufacturing process.
Wafer Bumping	A back-end manufacturing process where the bare die is connected directly to other components via small metallic balls (or bumps) that are soldered directly onto the wafer. This step is only performed for select kinds of die-package assemblies.
Wafer Dicing	Back-end manufacturing process whereby individual die are cut from a finished wafer using a diamond saw before being sent to a back-end facility for packaging and assembly.
Wafer Fabrication	A complex set of manufacturing processes used to produce “sheets” of fully completed integrated circuits “printed” on flat, round silicon wafers at a semiconductor fab or foundry.
Wafer Level Packaging (WLP)	Integrated Circuit (IC) Packaging that begins the packaging process before the wafer has been diced, resulting in a smaller die-package area that is approximately the size of the chip itself. Also known as Chip-Scale Packaging (CSP).
Wafer Prober	A device used to electrically test wafer die before final packaging, assembly, and testing is done.
Wafer Probing	A late-stage front-end manufacturing process where a device called a wafer prober electrically tests wafer die before final packaging, assembly, and testing is done.
Wafer Run	A full run-through of the wafer manufacturing process in a fab or foundry, from wafer fabrication through to wafer dicing.
Wafer Testing	A testing methodology that ensures each individual die is defect free and fully functional. Wafer testing enables fabs to identify dysfunctional die for disposal, measure performance, and track recurring errors so that processes can be improved.
Watt (W)	The base unit for power. It measures the amount of work executed by an electronic circuit in which one amp is “pushed” by one volt.
Wavelength	The distance between two successive high or low points on a given wave of light, RF Signal, or other electromagnetic wave energy. In photolithography, light wavelengths constrain the pattern size engineers can etch into the surface of a wafer.
Wet Etching	A type of removal process that uses liquid chemicals to wash away photoresist material that is no longer needed.
Wire Bonding	Process whereby die are connected to the rest of the system through little wires that lead out to the periphery of the package, forming interconnects (I/0) with the rest of the system.
World Semiconductor Trade Statistics (WSTS)	A leading non-profit organization that compiles key revenue and product category sales data for the semiconductor industry.
Yield	A statistic used to measure the productive success of a specific set of manufacturing processes or wafer run. There are two types of yield, including Line Yield and Die Yield, which together measure end-to-end yield.
Yield Optimization	A critical set of practices, feedback mechanisms, and testing processes whose goal is to maximize yield, drive down unit manufacturing costs, and boost margins.

Index

Actuators

Air purification/construction requirements

Analog-to-digital (ADC)

SeeDigital-to-analog (DAC) technology

Application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs)

advantages

cost analysis

disadvantages

time-to-market constraints

Application-specific standard parts (ASSPs)

Application-specific standard products (ASSPs)

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

Atomic layer deposition (ALD)

Back-end manufacturing

assembly/testing

die bonding/cutting

die-package assembly

encapsulation/sealing

external interconnect formation

flip-chip bonding functions

testing

transfer molding

wafer bumping

wire bonding

Back-end-of-the line (BEOL)

Backup/auxiliary memories

Ball grade array (BGA)

Ball grid array (BGA)

Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

Bipolar semiconductor manufacturing

BrainScaleS System

Bus interfaces

block diagram

chipset architecture

CPU/microprocessor

interface circuit design

Northbridge

parallel vs. serial interfaces

primary functions

serial interface buses

Southbridge

system bus

Central processing units (CPUs)

Chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP)

Chinese competition

manufacturing capacity

smartphones/infotainment systems

United States

Chip-scale packaging (CSP)

Circuits

discrete components

SeeDiscrete components

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology

Complex instruction set computing (CISC)/RISC

architectures

assembly languages

clock cycle

compilers

ecosystems

hertz

MIPS/ARM Holdings

proprietary vs. licensed vs. open source

Conductivity

conductors

definitions

electrical wiring

insulators

Ohms (Ω)

COVID-19/semiconductor supply chain

advantages

economic consequences

factors

geographic clustering

geopolitical conflict

mutual interdependence

natural variability

regional stratification

total cost of ownership (TCO)

Cycling pre/post-metal process

dielectric materials

FEOL pre-metal/BEOL post-metal processes

global interconnects–intel processor

metal deposition and interconnect formation

SRAM memory chip

types

Deep learning

Designing costs

communication architectures

EDA tools

overview

quantum tunneling and current leakage

semiconductor IP companies

software tools

systems companies

Die stacking technologies (HBM vs. HMC)

advantage/disadvantages

2.5D and 3D packaging

memory market

through silicon via (TSV)

Digital signal processors (DSPs)

Digital-to-analog (DAC) technology

artificial intelligence/machine learning

ASICs/FPGAs

binary computer language

central processing units (CPUs)

components

control systems

digital/analog components

electromagnetic energy

emulators

frequency

frequency/amplitude

graphics processing units (GPUs)

hardware accelerators

Hertz (Hz)

logic market

matrices

memory chips

MEMS devices

microprocessor (MPU)

mixed-signal devices

mobile device sensors

multi-chip-module (MCM)

multi-core architecture

optoelectronics

parallel/serial processing

potential applications

sensors/actuators

SIA framework

special purpose logic devices

synchronous

system on chips (SoCs)

wavelength

wave signals

wireless technologies

Discrete components

building blocks

CMOS technology

components

diodes

direct current (DC)

electronic system

functional components

functional scaling

geometric scaling

integrated circuits

logic gates

MEMS

non-integrated components

resistor/capacitor/inductor

substrate

technology/process node

transistor

SeeTransistors

transistors function

Double Data Rate RAM (DDR)

Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM)

Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM)

Electricity/conductivity

amperes

batteries

battery powered light bulb circuit

cathode/anode

charge/current

chemical energy

circuit

conductivity

conductors

current

differences

electromotive force (EMF/E)

electron flow vs. current flow

electron movement/charges

flammable structures

Joule’s Law

kinetic energy

neutral neutrons

potential charge

protons/electrons

strong/electromagnetic forces

units of electricity

watts (W)

Electrochemical deposition (ECD)

Electromagnetic force

Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Electromotive force (EMF/E)

Electronic design automation (EDA)

Electronic system

components

die-level integration

different levels

functional components

integrated circuit

interconnects

module

PCB components

system architect

Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM)

Fabs vs. fabless design

Failure analysis engineers

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Field effect transistors (FET)

Field programmable gate array (FPGA)

FinFET vs. MOSFET transistors

Front-end manufacturing

ALD, MBE, and ECD machines

deposition

e-beam lithography

EUV systems

fabrication process

ingots/silica

ion implantation/ion introduction

oxidation

pattern-etching process

patterning and lithography

patterning and photolithography

photolithographic process

photolithography process

photoresist

physical property alteration

processed wafer vs. stamp sheet

PVD process

sputtering gas

stepper and photomask

substrate

thin films

wafer dicing

wafer fabrication

wet etching/dry etching

Front-end-of-the-line (FEOL)

Front-side bus (FSB)

Functional scaling

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Gallium nitride (GaN)

Gate-All-Around (GAA)

Geometric scaling

Geometric vs. functional scaling

Germanium/gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)

Graphics processing units (GPUs)

Hard disk drives (HDD)

Hardware description languages (HDL)

Harvard vs. Von Neumann architecture

Heterogeneous vs. monolithic integration

device architecture and integration

functional scaling

geometric scaling

heterogeneous integration

integrated systems

monolithic/homogenous integration

power management/frequency

process nodes

High-bandwidth memory (HBM)

High performance computing (HPC)

Huang’s Law

Human Brain Project (HBP)

Hybrid Memory Cube (HMC)

Inking

Instruction set architectures (ISA)/microarchitecture

ARM architecture

cooking and clock cycles

instructions

pipelining

processing throughput

processor performance/instruction pipelining

synchronous task

transistors

universal architecture stack

Integrated circuits (ICs)

electronic system

packaging type

architectures

components/configurations

copper hybrid bonding

flip-chip attachment process

heterogeneous integration

MCM/SiP integrate

monolithic integration

solder balls

stacking technology

through silicon vias (TSVs)

2D/3D monolithic integration

2.5/3D packaging architectures

underfill/flip-chip bonding

wafer bumping

wafer-level packaging

wire bonded connections

Integrated device manufacturers (IDMs)

Internet protocol (IP)

Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

I/O Controller Hub (ICH)

J, K

Joule’s Law

Light emitting diodes (LEDs)

Lithographic equipment

Lithographic technologies (EUV)

Lithography lab

Logical link control (LLC)

Logic gates

M&A agreement announcements

Manufacturing costs

equipment

lithography equipment

packaging architectures/heterogeneous integration

semiconductor business models

Manufacturing process

back-end assembly/testing

consecutive cycles

cycling pre/post metal

DAO devices

die area/batch yield

end-to-end flow

front-end manufacturing

semiconductor equipment

technology/process nodes

utilization

wafer fabrication/dicing

wafer fabs

wafer probing/yield/failure analysis

Media access control (MAC)

Memory stack

booting instructions

cache

cache memories

hierarchy

memory hierarchy library analogy

microarchitectures

non-volatile ROM memories

permanent storage non-volatile

RAM/ROM memories

temporary storage volatile

Metal-oxide field effect devices (MOSFETs)

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)

Microarchitecture

Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)

actuators

discrete components

fabrication techniques

interface drivers/power devices

manufacturing technology

optoelectronics

power integrity issues

power management ICs (PMIC)

sensor applications

technological innovation

Microprocessor (MPU)

Micro-vs. Macro-architectural decisions

heterogeneous vs. monolithic integration

ISA/microarchitecture

RISC and CISC

system architecture/microarchitecture

Von Neumann vs. Harvard architecture

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)

Moore’s law

fascinating technologies

computing applications

cryogenic technology

data storage

geometric/functional scaling

neuromorphic technology

prolonging technologies

quantum computing

quantum entanglement/supremacy

scaling technologies

superposition

transistors

tunneling/entanglement

sustaining technologies

carbon nanotubes

custom silicon/specialized accelerators

data transfer rate

electron mobility

FinFETs

functional scaling

GAA transistors

Gate-All-Around (GAA)

graphene carbon nanotubes

optical chips/interconnects

optical interconnects

planar transistors

POEM project

power density

quantum tunneling

through silicon via (TSV)

transistors

tunneling interference

2.5 and 3D Die stacking

traditional silicon engineering

Multi-chip-modules (MCMs)

Nanosheet transistors

National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA)

Neuromorphic computing technologies

Non-integrated discrete components

Non-volatile memories

burning process

EEPROM/EPROM

HDD vs. SSD

NAND flash memory

primary memories

secondary memories

n-type semiconductor (NMOS transistor)

Open systems interconnection (OSI) model

application layer

data link layer protocols

embedded software/firmware

hardware abstraction/platform layers

inter-system communication

macro-system stack

middleware layer

middleware/platform layer

network interface controller

network packets

PHY layer

presentation

reference model

session/transport

system designers

system layers

system stack

Optoelectronics

Outsourced Assembly, Test, and Packaging Suppliers (OSAT’s)

P, Q

Parametric testing

Performance, power, area, and cost (PPAC)

battery-powered laptops

clock frequency (Hz)/watts/nanometers (nm)

constraints

key design metrics

metrics

requirements/drivers

trade-offs

Peripheral component interface (PCI)

Photonically optimized embedded microprocessors (POEM)

Photonic integrated circuits (PICs)

Physical layer (PHY)

Physical vapor deposition (PVD)

Power distribution network (PDN)

Power management ICs (PMICs)

Power management units (PMUs)

Printed circuit board (PCB)

Programmable read-only memory (PROM)

Property, plant, and equipment (PPE)

p-type semiconductors (PMOS transistor)

Radio frequency (RF)/wireless technologies

bandwidth

base station

big picture

broadcasting/frequency regulation

conversation chunks

coverage cell

digital signal processing (DSP)

electrical energy/wave energy

electromagnetic spectrum

1G/5G(generation) technology

frequency and application

frequency bands

long-distance phone call

multiple access standard technology

OSI reference model

radiation

signals

TDMA/CDMA

transmitters/receivers

active/passive components

amplifier

antennas

block diagrams

filters

frequency/amplitude

functions

interference/noise

modulator/demodulator

power source/oscillator

signal integrity

Random-access memories (RAM)

Read-only memories (ROMs)

Reduced instruction set computing (RISC)

SeeComplex instruction set computing (CISC)/RISC

Scribe line

Semiconductor industry

capital expenditures

capital requirements

Chinese competition

consolidation

acquisition announcement

capital-intensive industry

companies

contextualize

cost of goods sold (COGS)

dual pressures

industry dynamics

intellectual property (IP)

M&A agreements

COVID-19

cyclical revenues/high volatility

fabless design companies

fabs vs. fabless design

front-end design

fully integrated semiconductor companies

high R&D/capital investment

historical evolution

IDMs/fabless design

Lite-Fab model

long-term profitability

manufacturing and assembly

positive productivity growth/high compensation

pros and cons

pure-play foundry

rising design/manufacturing costs

shuttle run

silicon cycles

tighter integration

United States/international market

Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA)

analog components

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