CONTENTS
About the VES
Foreword
Chapter 1 Introduction
Visual Effects and Special Effects
Visual Effects
Special Effects
Why Use Visual Effects?
The Creation of Visual Effects
A Bit of Visual Effects History
Optical Printers
Electronics for Camera Control
The Digital Age
Unintended Consequences: Where Does Creativity End?
Chapter 2 Pre-Production/Preparation
Overview
Breaking Down a Script—Budgeting
Ballpark Budget
More Detailed Budgets
Bidding
Plate Photography
Temp Screenings
Reviewing Bids
Contracts
Rebidding during Shooting
Rebidding in Post
Monitoring the Budget and Schedule
Keeping the Budget Down
Working with the Director and Producer
Demo Reel
The Meeting
Moving Forward
Production Departments
Production Design
Camera
Special Effects
Stunts
Wardrobe
Makeup
Production
Visual Effects
Editorial
Locations
Production Meeting
Designing Visual Effects Shots
Guidelines for Directors
Storyboards
Previs
Objective of the Shot
Concept Art
Continuity
Photorealism
Original Concepts
Budget
Reality and Magic
Camera Angles
Framing
Scale
Detail
Speed
Scaled Images
Depth of Field
Sequence of Shots
Camera Motion
Less Is More
Action Pacing
CG Characters
Creatures and Character Design
Powers of 10 Shots
Visual Effects Techniques
Technique Considerations
Additional Suggestions for Determining Techniques
What is Previs?
Development of Previs Techniques
History and Background
The Applications of Previs: Who Benefits From it and How?
Postvis
Cautions and Suggestions for Good Practice
The Perils of Previs!
Passing the Work On
The Role of the VFX Supervisor in Previs
The Future of Previs: Advanced Techniques
Environment Input
Character Input
Camera Input
Gaming Techniques
On-Set Previs
Lighting Previs
3D Stereo Previs
Virtual Production
Camera Angle Projection
Drawing What the Lens Sees
Chapter 3 Acquisition/Shooting
Working on Set
Common Types of Special Effects
What Are Special Effects?
A Brief History of Special Effects
The Special Effects Supervisor
Working with the Visual Effects
Visual Effects in Service to SFX
Special Effects Design and Planning
Storyboards and Previs
The Elements: Rain, Wind, and Snow and Ice
Smoke, Fire, and Pyrotechnics
Mechanical Effects
Flying Wire Rigs and Stunts
Safety
Front and Rear Projection Systems for Visual Effects
Rear Projection
Front Projection (Blue or Green Screens and Picture Imagery)
Rear Projection Equipment
Front Projection Equipment
Large-Area Emissive Displays (LCD, Plasma, and Jumbotron Screens)
Greenscreen and Bluescreen Photography
Function of the Backing—Green, Blue, or Red
Fabric and Paint
Backing Uniformity and Screen Correction
How to Expose a Greenscreen Shot and Why
Setting Screen Brightness
Floor Shots, Virtual Sets
Foreground Lighting
Controlling Spill Light
Lighting Virtual Sets
Tracking Marks on the Screen
On-Set Preview
Camera for Bluescreen or Greenscreen Photography
Negative Scanning and Digital Conversion
The Processed Foreground
Underwater Photography
Working with the Cinematographer
The Alpha Channel
Compositing Software
On-Set Data Acquisition
Camera Report
Tracking Markers
Props for the Actors
Cyberscanning
Digital Photos
Lidar/Laser Scanning
Lens Distortion Charts
HDRI and Chrome Balls
Lidar Scanning and Acquisition
On-Set 3D Scanning Systems
On-Set Data Acquisition
3D Scanning Systems
Prepping the Actors for Scanning
Scanning Props or Cars
Review All That Has Been Scanned
3D Scanning Post-Production
Lighting Data
Gathering Lighting Data
Beware of False Savings!
Goals
Using Conventional Still Cameras
Shooting Considerations
Clean Plates
Shooting the Clean Plate
Locked-Off Camera
Moving Camera
Other Issues
Postprocess
Alternates without Clean Plates
Other Uses for Clean Plates
Monster Sticks
On-Set Animation Capture: Witness Cam
Wireless Nonvideo Motion Capture
Factors Affecting Witness Cameras
Dealing with the Data in Post-Production
Real-Time Matchmoving and Camera-Tracking Data
Triangulation as a Method of Recording Camera Data
Camera/Subject Positional Information
Basics: The Tool Kit
Basics: Nodal Point
Photographic Reference
Shooting Video as a Reference
Rules, Setup, and Testing
Digital Cinematography
The Viewing System
The Recording System
Filming Live-Action Plates to be Used in VFX
Camera Position (Station Point)
Angle of View
Lighting Considerations
Camera Tilt
Background Quality
Moving Plates
Scouting the Camera Positions
A Case Study
Camera Cars
Camera Car Safety Issues
Purpose-Built Crane Cars
Vibration and Camera Stabilization
Road Speed
Precautions
Panoramic Rigs
On the Water
Air to Air
Cable Systems
Shooting Elements for Compositing
What Is an Element?
Stock Footage
Types of Elements
Generic versus Shot-Specific Elements
Determining Element Needs
Cheating
Backgrounds
Black Backgrounds
Line-Up
Camera Format Considerations
Assorted Methods for Shooting Elements
High-Speed Photography and Filming Elements
High-Speed Photography
Cameras
Technicians
Director of Photography
Lighting
Application
Locking Down the Camera
Video Assist
Post
Supervising Motion Control
What Is Motion Control?
Performance Choreography
Multiple-Pass Photography
Scaling
Import and Export of Camera Move Data
The Data
Types of Motion Control Systems
Motion Control Software
Camera Types
Sync and Phase
Dealing with Production
Acquisition of Motion/Still Photographic Textures for Mapping onto CG
Panoramic Backgrounds
Tiled Stills
Motion Tiling and Synchronous Plates
Practical Considerations
Stills for Textures and Lighting
Stop-Motion
Evolution of Stop-Motion Photography
The Time Required to Shoot in Stop-Motion
Preparation before Shooting
Setting Up a Shooting Space for Stop-Motion
Use of Motion Control in Stop-Motion
Useful Caveats
Evolution of a Shot
Use of Stop-Motion in Visual Effects
What are Miniatures?
What Are Miniatures and Why Are They Used?
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Miniature Effects
Execution of Planning
Design and Integration within the Film
Photographic Continuity
Miniature Categories
Scale Determinations
Forced Perspective Miniatures
In-Camera Compositing of Miniatures with Full-Scale Live-Action Actors
Nodal Pans and Tilts
Forced Perspective
Mixed Scales
The Fabrication of Miniature Effects
Scale and Purpose Requirements of a Miniature
Construction Materials
The Paint Process
Previsualization and Miniatures
The Basic Standard Tools
The Incorporation of Mechanical, Practical, and Pyrotechnic Effects with Miniatures
Water Effects
Fire, Explosives, and Collapsing
Shooting Locations and Conditions
Photography of Miniature Effects: Motion Control
What Is Motion Control and What Are Its Benefits to Miniature Photography?
Execution and Technique Using Previs
Photography
Photography of Miniature Effects: High-Speed Photography
Depth of Field
Pyrotechnics
Smoke, Fire, and Water
The Use of Miniatures in the Digital World
Special Effects for Miniatures
Shrinking Reality
Scale Considerations
Camera
Water
Rain
Fire
Smoke
Explosions
Breakaways
Chapter 4 Performance and Motion Capture
What is Motion Capture?
Other Types of Motion Capture
Resistance-Based Technologies
Electromechanical-Based Technologies
Computer Vision
Time-of-Flight Technologies
Is Motion Capture Right for a Project?
Preparing for Motion Capture
What Can Be Captured
What Cannot Be Captured
Technology Considerations
Marker Placement
Marker Placement on Faces
Marker Masks
Hardware
The Strobe
Markers
Lenses
Filter
Charge-Coupled Device
Onboard Processor
Inputs/Outputs
Setup
Balance
Software
Acquisition
Post-Processing
Reconstruction
Labeling
Rigid Bodies
Cleaning
Solving Motion Capture
Facial Capture
Capture Techniques
Markerless Motion Capture
Stabilization
The Face Model
Facial Rigging
Facial Action Coding System
Real-Time Motion Capture
Limitations
Line of Sight
Markers
Solving
Visualization
Alternate Technologies
Chapter 5 Stereoscopic 3D
How 3D Works
Accommodation and Convergence
Interaxial Separation
Toe-in versus Horizontal Image Translation
Parallax or Depth Budget
Positive and Negative Parallax
Floating Windows
Fix It in Post
Stereoscopic Design
The Emerging Grammar of 3D
Creative Use of Depth
Previsualization
Avoiding Painful 3D
The Aesthetic of Scale
Cutting for 3D
Designing for Multiple Release Formats
Immersion-Based versus Convergence-Based Stereo
Virtual 3D Photography
Pros and Cons of Virtual 3D Photography
Multiple Camera Rigs
The 3D Camera Rig
Implementing Convergence
Manipulating the Screen Surround
Special Cases for Virtual 3D Photography
2D to 3D Conversion
Depth Creation Preparation
Visual Analysis of 2D Depth Cues
Main Artistic Stages of 2D-to-3D Conversion
Major 2D-to-3D Conversion Workflows
Special Cases
Transparencies
Reflections
Re-Projection Mapping Method Workflow
Pixel Displacement or Pixel Shifting
Minor 2D-to-3D Conversion Workflows
Automatic Conversion
Temporal Offset
Dynamic Temporal Offset
Is “Real” Always Right?
3D Stereoscopic Visual Effects
Prepping for the Third Dimension
Shooting the Third Dimension
Visual Effects in the Third Dimension
Photographed Elements
Accuracy and Attention to Detail
Artistic Skill Level
Data Management
3D Stereo Digital Intermediate Workflow
Stereoscopic 3D Process Milestones
Viewing 3D Dailies
Projection Screens for 3D Stereoscopic Viewing
3D Editorial Processes
3D Stereoscopic Conforming
Data Workflow
2D versus 3D Grading
3D Stereo RealD Mastering Considerations
Geometry and Correction of Undesirable Binocular Disparity
3D Stereo Deliverables
Stereoscopic Window
The Stereoscopic Window
Placement of the Window in Relation to the 3D Scene
Window Violations
Window Placement Logic
How to Create a Stereoscopic Window
Producing Movies in Three Dimensions
Development—Getting the Greenlight
Production—What to Look Out For
Chapter 6 Post-Production/Image Manipulation
Resolution and Image Format Considerations
Formats
Transport
Resolution
Image Compression/File Formats for Post-Production
Image Encoding
Still Image Compression
File Formats
4k+ Systems Theory Basics for Motion Picture Imaging
Part 1: Resolution and Sharpness
Part 2: Into the Digital Realm
Part 3: Does 4k Look Better Than 2k?
Part 4: Visual Perception Limitations for Large Screens
Film Scanning and Recording
Scanning
Recording
Color Management
The Three Guidelines
Digital Color Image Encodings and Digital Cameras
Color Management at the Desktop
Bringing Color Management to Film Workflows
Digital Intermediate
VFX Editorial
Editing within a Shot: The Art of Pre-Compositing
How It Came to Be
Modern Day Tracking and Disseminating of Information
As the Shot Changes
Wrapping It Up
Communication with Artists
Starting
Working with Teams
Reference and Perspective
Shot Production
Communicating with Artists in Other Departments
Completion
The History of Compositing
The History of Optical Technique
Traveling Matte Technique and the Digital Age
Historical Notes on Blue Screen
Film versus Digital
Compositing of Live-Action Elements
Modern Digital Compositing
Capturing the Image to Composite
After the Shoot
Extractions and the Magic Bullet
Starting the Composite
Compositing Screen Elements in Stereoscopic 3D
Rotoscoping
Digital Painting and Plate Reconstruction
Scene Tracking
Matte Paintings/Creative Environments
Matte Paintings: Art of the Digital Realm
What Is a Matte Painting?
Matte Painting Pioneers and History
Visualizing the Matte Painting Shot in Pre-Production
On-Set Supervision for Matte Painting Shots
Basic Skills and Tricks of the Trade
Miniatures and Computer-Generated Sets
Finding the Best Frame
Re-Projected Photo Survey
The Need for Creative Compositing
Chapter 7 Digital Element Creation
Digital Modeling
Overview: The Importance of Modeling
Types of Modeling
Model Data Types
Development of Models
Modeling for a Production Pipeline
Engineering Aspects for Polygons
Engineering Aspects for NURBS
Rigging and Animation Rigging
Rigging: What Is It?
Animation Rigging
Deformation Rigging
Texturing and Surfacing
The Importance of Texture Painting
Hard Surface Models
Creature Models
Types of Geometry: Their Problems and Benefits
Prepping the Model to Be Painted
Texture Creation
Various Other Map-Driven Effects
Texture Painting in Production
Model Editing
Digital Hair/Fur
Hair Generation Process
General Issues and Solutions
Digital Feathers
Morphology of Real Feathers
Modeling Digital Feathers
Similarities between Hair and Feathers
Differences between Hair and Feathers
Dynamics and Simulation
How Is a Simulation Created?
When Is Simulation Appropriate?
Tricks and Cheats
Important Considerations
Planning and Preparation
Software Solutions: A Broad Overview of Current Options
Particles
What Are Particle Systems?
The Next Step
The Birth of Particles
Creating Effects
Rigid-Body Dynamics
How Rigid-Body Dynamics Are Created
Potential Problems
Other Issues
Tricks for Getting It Done
Digital Lighting
Light in Reality and in Computer Graphics
Case Study of Reality Compared with Simple CG Simulation
Visual Sophistication through Texture Mapping
Physically Derived Shading Models
Beneath the Surface
Goals of Lighting in Visual Effects
Work Flow for Successful Creative Digital Lighting
The Technologies of Lights in Computer Graphics
Direct Lighting: Source to Surface to Camera
Negative Lights
Reflections
Photographed Reflections
Shadows
Image-Based Lighting
Rendering Occlusion
Ambient Occlusion
Reflection Occlusion
Average Light Direction Vectors: Bent Normals
Creating Light Sources from Environment Maps
Physically Based Rendering
Volumetric Lighting Effects
Shader Basics
What Are Shaders?
Shading Models
Bump and Displacement
Map-Based Shaders
Procedural Shaders
Shader Design
Antialiasing Considerations
3D Compositing
Color Representation
Bit Depth and Dynamic Range
Mattes
Compositing CG
2.5D Compositing
Crowd Generation and Simulation Techniques
Live-Action Replication
Sprites
Computer-Generated Crowds
Modeling for Replication
Variation
Mesh Density
Animation Cycles for Replication
Motion Capture
Keyframe Animation
Dynamic Motion Synthesis
Behaviors and Crowd Control
CG Prosthetics and Actor Enhancements
On-Set Tracking and Capture Considerations
Eye Enhancements
3D Techniques
2D Techniques
2.5D Techniques
Silhouette Changes
Re-Projection
3D Products, Systems, and Software
Digital Element Creation Process
3D Graphics Software
3D Tracking
Special Effects
Rendering
Texturing
Chapter 8 Interactive Games
Films versus Games
Basic Differences
Most Important Aspect
Narrative Storytelling
Differences in Limitations
Cost of Iterations and Changes during Production
Category Types
Format Types
Transmedia Production Design Techniques
Games and Platforms
Game Types
Game Platforms
What Are Game Engines and How Do They Function?
Working with a Game Engine
What Are the Production Steps in Creating a Game?
Marketing to an Audience
Visuals
Phases of Development
Game Cinematic Sequences
Noninteractive Scenes
Game Engine–Rendered NIS Scenes
The Design and Production Process
Chapter 9 Complete Animation
What is an Animation Project?
Full Animation versus Visual Effects
Difference Between Visual Effects and Animation
Production Pipelines
Production
A Survey and History of Animation Techniques
Traditional Animation
Stop-Motion
Computer Graphic Technology
Considerations for a Full CG-Animated Feature Pipeline
CG Feature Animation Pipeline
Managing an Animated Film
Film Management and Personal Style
Building Brain Trusts
Building the Core Creative Team
Writing and Visual Development
Working with a Studio
Facilities and Environment
Managing the Event
The Production Process: An Animator’s Perspective
Working on CG-Animated Content in Live-Action Features
Planning the Process
Production
Character and Environment Interaction
Chapter 10 Other Workflow Considerations
Virtual Studio Technology
Analysis of a Production Workflow
From Workflow to Pipeline
Service Bureau versus In-House Requirements
Design of a Production Workflow
From Analysis to Design
Deploying a Production Workflow
From Design to Implementation
Infrastructure
Tracking Assets
What Is Task and Asset Tracking?
Commercial Task and Asset Tracking Systems
Building Task and Asset Tracking Systems
Scene Assembly
3D Scene Assembly
2D Scene Assembly (Compositing)
Working across Multiple Facilities
Images
Models
Texturing
Animation
Compositing
R&D
Acknowledgments
Appendix A: Charts and Formulas
Appendix B: Credits/Titles to Be Submitted in Accordance with VES Guidelines
Appendix C: Glossary
Index
