A
AB-BC paradigm, see Catastrophic interference
Access to materials, motivation for learning, 343, 344, 345
Accuracy
consistency ratio of orthographic segment, 126
site word learning, 23
Achievement, best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 368–369
Acoustic information, spoken word recognition, 104
ADD, see Auditory Discrimination in Depth program
Adolescence, prediction of proclivity toward reading, 255–257
Age of acquisition (AOA), later word representations, 101
mispronunciation in spoken word recognition, 105–106
Alliteration skills
exposure relation to phonological awareness and early reading, 278
word recognition development, 273–274
Alphabet
English orthography history, 318–319
home experiences relation to development of word recognition, 266, 269
knowledge
beginning reading, 34, 275–276
learning at home, 84
phonological awareness, 79–81
disabled readers ability, 32
reading and spelling correlation, 28, 296
site word learning, 12–24, see also Site word learning
strategy
use in spelling before use in reading, 298–300
Alphabet books, phonological awareness and reading, 80–81, see also Picture books
Analogy, word recognition development
acquiring spoken versus written language, 41–42
analogies in other orthographies, 51–52
integrating orthographic analogies in the classroom, 57–58
interactive theories of reading development, 53–54
levels of phonological awareness, 44–46
learning to read other orthographies, 46–47
orthographic analogies
classroom practice, 54–56
rime units in English, 47–49
phonological awareness and reading, 46
rime awareness and rime analogies in English, 50–51
spelling system of English, 43–44
Analogy strategy
decoding, 78
site word learning, 22
Analytic language skills
dyslexic versus normal readers, 190–191
training and reading ability, 176–177
AOA, see Age of acquisition
Arabic, phonological deficits in dyslexia, 150, 151, 152
ART, see Author recognition test
grapheme-phonemes and site word learning, 16
Word Work program, 321–324
Articulatory awareness, strategy training study, 196
Articulatory distortion, phonemes, 163
Assessment, Word Work program, 338
Attentiveness, learning to read, 11
At-risk students, Word Work program, 338
Auditory Conceptualization in Depth Program, site word learning, 16
Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD) Program
articulatory awareness in strategy training study, 196, 197
impact of intervention for children with reading disabilities, 181, 182
Authentic instruction, see also Instruction
spelling, 306
word recognition enhancement and motivation for learning, 349–350, 351, 355
Authentic literacy, models of teaching, 362
Authentic themes, motivation for learning, 343, 344, 347
Author recognition test (ART)
early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 254, 255
print exposure
orthographic versus phonological processing, 239
reading comprehension predictions, 250, 252, 253
Author’s chair, beginning literacy program, 230
Automatic word recognition, learning to read, 9, see also Word recognition
Autonomy, learning and motivation, 342
B
Balanced approach, word recognition enhancement and motivation for learning, 350, 351–352
Balanced instruction, best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 369
Beginning Word Work, Word Work program, 327
Big Words, Word Work program, 327
Blending tasks
phonological awareness, 66, 68, 69, 71
spelling training, 297
Bonded unit, site word learning, 12
Book reports, beginning literacy program, 226
Books
discussion and beginning literacy program, 227
reading frequency relation to word recognition skills, 280–281
Bookstore visits, word recognition development, 267
Boredom, student and models of teaching, 364
Brain flow studies, dyslexic versus normal readers, 190–191
Building a word wall, beginning literacy program, 215
C
Catastrophic interference, phenomenon of, 130–131
Center, Word Work program, 328–329
Chinese
characterization of orthography, 152
phonological deficits in dyslexia, 150, 152–154
Chunking task, mastering in Word Work program, 319
Cipher reading, phonological awareness, 83, see also Decoding
Classroom
integration of orthographic analogies and reading progress, 57–58
practice and orthographic analogies, 54–56
management
models of teaching, 362
teachers and motivation for learning, 353
Clue word task, orthographic analogies in reading development, 48
Cognitive ability
growth and print exposure in adults and children, 237–238
learning to spell, 296
phonological processing relationships, 154–155
Cognitive markers, reading disabled children and intervention, 180
Cohort model, adult spoken word recognition, 92–93
Compare/contrast strategy, beginning literacy program, 218
Complex words, formation and Word Work program, 327
Complexity, English orthography, 319, 320
Comprehension
beginning literacy program, 228
decoding-in-context study, 192
early word representation, 96, 99
reading
abilities and reading volume, 237
dyslexic versus normal readers, 190
early start and reading correlation, 256–257
impact of intervention for disabled children, 182, 183
print exposure in predictions, 250–255
speaking correlation, 5
strategy training study results, 201, 203, 205
traditional programs, 317
Comprehension strategy (CS) condition, strategy training study, 194, 195, 198–199
pattern of student gains, 201, 203, 205
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processes in Reading (CTPPR), identification of reading disability, 179
Computer
interactive and phonological skills training
decoding-in-context study, 191–194
pattern differences in gains on tests of words not studied, 203–204
standardized tests versus studied words gains, 202–203
strategy training study, 194–201
theoretical background, 190–191
why differential gains do not increase with time, 204–206
oral language training and reading ability, 175
Concept of word, see also Words
capable readers, 210–212
reading tongue twisters, 217
Conceptually-oriented context, reading achievement enhancement and motivation for learning, 343–347
Confirmation processes, learning to read, 11
Connectionist learning systems, reading, 130, 131
Connection-forming process, site word learning, 12–14, 16, 17–24
Consistency effect
evidence of optimal reading, 128, 129
learning the English spelling system, 293
Consistency ratio, orthographic segment and predictions in ROAR model, 124–129
Consolidated alphabetic phase, site word learning, 22–24, see also Alphabet
Consonants
clusters and instruction in elementary school, 308
English orthography, 318–319
gains with strategy training study, 196
misspelling in English spelling system, 292
pronunciation errors in normal versus disabled readers, 145–148
Consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC)
English versus other spelling systems, 43–44
strategy training study, 197
Word Work program
concept in English orthography, 319–321
decoding, 328
Consonant-vowel matrix, Anglo-Saxon correspondences, 319, 320
Content-related talk, joint reading experiences and word recognition, 270
Context
at-risk and delayed readers, 213–214
awareness in capable readers, 211, 212
orthographic analogies in reading development, 49
phonetic cue reading, 76–77
spelling in English spelling system, 290, 294
word determinations in beginning literacy program, 228
Context cues, learning to read, 10
Contextualized experience, literacy acquisition, 371
Correlational patterns, phonological awareness skills, 72–74
Criticism
model teacher, 365
teachers and grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 361
Cross-linguistic studies, infant speech perception, 94–95
CS, see Comprehension strategy condition
CTPPR, see Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processes in Reading
Curriculum chart, Word Work program, 326–328
CVC, see Consonant-vowel-consonant
D
Deciphering skills, learning to read, 5–6, 7
Decoding
alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness, 79
at-risk and delayed readers, 213
beginning literacy program, 223, 228
benefits of spelling, 296
decoding-in-context study, 192
difficulties and relation to reading, 164, 167
dyslexic versus normal readers, 149, 190
English orthography, 319
learning to read, 7, 10, 11, 34
learning word recognition, 77–78
print exposure abilities, 238
reading comprehension predictions, 252
site word learning development, 21–22
strategy training study, 197–198
comparison with decoding-in-context, 203
student gains, 200
supplementary program in literature-based programs, 316
syllable-by-syllable pseudoword reading in English versus Hebrew, 147
Word Work program
consonant-vowel-consonant units, 321, 328
Fruitvale Elementary School, 332
Hickory Grove Elementary School, 336
spelling integration, 316
Decoding-in-context study
background, 191
comparison with strategy training study, 201–206
design and method, 192
results of study, 193–194
Dedication, teachers and models of teaching, 362
Deficits
lexical restructuring, 102
phonological awareness and reading disabilities, 108, 111
Deletion tasks
decoding-in-context study, 194
orthographic processing versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition
first through third graders, 245–246, 248
phonological awareness
skills relationships, 71
sounds in dyslexic versus normal readers, 149
strategy training study, 201
Development phases, site word learning, 17–24
Diagnoses/intervention, applications of research for reading-disabled children, 177–178
Dialecticism, literacy instruction, 369
Diaries, home experiences and word recognition, 266–269
involving rhymes, 273–274
Disabled readers, reading and spelling skills, 31–32, see also Reading
Dual-route models
pseudoword reading, 143
rational analysis of reading, 124
Dyslexia
developmental and instability of phonological processing skills, 173–174
phonological processing and general cognitive ability, 155
pseudoword reading difficulties, 142
spelling abilities, 294
universality of phonological deficits, 150–152
Chinese, 152–154
E
Early Childhood Project, word recognition and parental responses to questionnaires and rating scales, 264–266, see also Home
Echo reading, beginning literacy program, 217, 223–224
Educational books, home experiences and of word recognition, 272, see also Picture books; Storybooks
Elementary school
disability consistency and phonological processing deficiencies, 170–174
phonological processing abilities stability assessment
latent variables, 168–169
unit-weighted composites, 169–170
spelling approaches, 302–309
Word Work program
Fruitvale, 330–334
Hickory Grove, 334–337
Omaha Public Schools, 337–338
Elkonin boxes, beginning literacy program, 219–220
Embedded phonics (EP), instruction for reading disabilities, 181, 182
Emergent position, developmental origins of phonemic segment, 91
Engagement, effectiveness and grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 359, 360
English
conceptual framework and Word Work program, 318
pronunciation errors in pseudoword reading versus Hebrew, 147
rhyme awareness and rime analogies correlation, 50
rime units and word recognition, 53
spelling system, 43–44
English spelling-to-sound mapping systems
evidence for optimal reading, 125–129
interleaved and gradient descent learning, 131–133
rational analysis of reading, 124–125
Environmental print, see Print exposure
EP, see Embedded phonics
EPR, see Every-pupil-response activities
Errors
learning to read, 11–12
phonological recoding, 78
pronunciation and pseudoword reading, 144–145
disabled versus normal readers, 146
spelling in English spelling system, 291–292
strategy training study, 194
word representations, 100
spoken word recognition, 105–106
Ethnographic studies, home experiences and word recognition, 266–269
Evaluation, Word Work program, 329
Every-pupil-response (EPR) activities, at-risk and delayed readers, 214
Exception words, pseudoword reading by disabled and poor readers, 144–145
Expansion rate, vocabulary and word representations, 101
Experienced frequency, word representations, 101
spoken word recognition, 105–106, 107
Explicit instruction, see also Instruction
models of teaching, 363
word recognition enhancement and motivation for learning, 349, 351, 352, 354
Eye movements, learning to read, 10–11
F
Factor analysis, levels of difficulty of phonological awareness, 67–68, 69
Failure, models of teaching, 364
Familiar words, see also Word representation
perception and early word representation, 97
later word representations, 100, 101
spoken word recognition, 105–106
Feedback
DECtalk computers, 191
grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 361
model teacher, 365–366
models of teaching, 364
strategy training study, 198
decoding-in-context study comparison, 203
Fifth-grade students, reading comprehension predictions and print exposure, 250–253, see also Elementary school
Fingerpoint reading, phonological awareness, 83
First-grade students, see also Elementary school
grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 358–365
importance of excellent teachers, 371
word recognition
home experiences in childhood, 267, 268
orthographic and phonological processing relation to variance, 240–245
teacher instruction in phonics/phonemic awareness, 351
-third grade comparison of orthographic versus phonological processing, 245–250
Word Work program
Fruitvale, 330–334
Omaha Public Schools, 337–338
Flaps, concept and spelling training, 298
Flashcards, home experiences and word recognition, 265
Food containers, alphabetic instruction and beginning reading, 275
Forgetting, catastrophic interference, 130
Frequency effects
reading words and learning to spell, 294
importance and implications for learning, 133
pseudoword reading, 144–145
word ring practice in beginning literacy program, 226–227
Full alphabetic phase, site word learning, 21–22, see also Alphabet
Full segmentation tasks, definition of phonological awareness, 66, 68, see also Segmentation
Fully analyzing words, beginning literacy program, 218–219, see also Word knowledge
G
Gain scores, strategy training study, 199–200
phonological skills, 200–201
word recognition, 201
Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test
early reading acquisition and reading experience, 253
student gains and word recognition instruction, 205
reading skill in early years compared with skills in adolescence, 256
Gating task
lexical restructuring and reading disabilities, 112
spoken word recognition, 106–108
Glue letters, Word Work program, 327
Goals
teachers and motivation for learning, 343, 344
Word Work program, 327
Grade-level differences, word recognition enhancement and motivation for learning, 350–352
Gradient descent learning, connectionist learning systems, 131–133
Graphemes
English orthography, 318
phoneme symbolization and site word learning, 15
Grapheme-phoneme conversion rules
acquisition and beginning readers, 155
errors and reading disabilities, 156–157
pseudowords
reading and phonological processing deficits, 141–145
spelling in normal versus disabled readers, 148–149
Grapheme-phoneme knowledge
reading and spelling correlation, 26–27
site word learning, 12–13, 16, see also Alphabet, knowledge
storybook reading, 279
Word Work program, 319–320, 321, 322
Graphophonic analysis, site word learning, 13–14, 15
Grocery stores, literacy experiences and word recognition, 269
Grounded theory, outstanding instruction, 358–365
Group settings, Word Work program, 329
Grouping, instructional and models of teaching, 362
GroupTask cards, Word Work program, 329
Guided invented spelling, effectiveness and instruction, 306–308, see also Invented spelling; Spelling
H
Handy words, Word Work program, 319
Hebrew, orthography compared with English, 147
History
acquisition of spelling in English spelling system, 291
English orthography, 318
Holistic processing
early word representations, 96–100
later word representations, 101, 105, 107
Home
-based program and motivation for learning, 345–346
experiences involving print
educational books, 272
observations and parent diaries, 266–269
parents responses to questionnaires and rating scales, 264–266
shared storybook reading, 269–272
experiences involving rhyme, 273–274
word recognition development
environmental print exposure and beginning reading, 276
exposure to rhyme, phonological awareness, and early reading, 276–278
home reading, 278–281
letter knowledge and beginning reading, 275–276
orthographic versus phonological processing, 240
Homework, home experiences and word recognition, 267
Homographic patterns
phonological deficits, 152, 154
skills of poor readers, 144, 145
Homonymy, early word representation, 99
Homophone choice task, orthographic versus phonological processing and word recognition variance, 246–247, 248, 249
I
Identity-based teaching, levels of difficulty of phonological awareness, 70
Illiteracy, phonological awareness and reading relationship, 82, see also Literacy
Illustrations, focus and home experiences in word recognition, 271
Income, home literacy childhood experiences and word recognition, 265
Independent reading, home childhood experiences and word recognition, 265, 267
Individualized activities, Word Work program, 329
Individualized instruction block, beginning literacy program, 226–227
Infants
acquisition of spoken language, 41–42
speech perception and developmental origins of phonemic segment, 93–96
Instruction
articulation patterns, 321
consonant clusters, 308
effectiveness and learning reading, 4
intervention with dyslexic readers and improvements in reading, 191, 212–214
literacy
beginning program, 215–225, 228–229
best practices by outstanding teachers, 368
model of teacher experiences, 365–367
nature of outstanding teaching, 358–365
philosophies for development and effective primary-level teaching, 369–372
scaffolding effects, 370–371
teacher model versus report of excellent national primary-level teachers, 367–369
models of teaching, 362
phonological skills and reading ability in primary grades, 175
processes versus methods in reading, 3–4
remedial and impact of intervention for reading disabilities, 181
dyslexic readers, 191, 212–214
rime analogies, 55–56
spelling, 34
reading correlation, 30–31
phonological awareness, 82
writing before reading, 302–306
word recognition, 348–352
Word Work program, 329
Instructional design, Word Work program, 328–330
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
instruction and impact of intervention for reading-disabled children, 180, 182
phonological processing relationship, 154
Interactive model of text reading, processing of words, 6
Interactive Reading Assessment System (IRAS), Word Work program, 335, 336
Interactive theories, reading development, 53–54
Interleaved learning, connectionist learning systems, 131–133
Intervention programs, see also Instruction
home literacy materials and teaching, 282
impact for children with reading disabilities, 180–184
Intonational phrases, early word representation, 98
Intrasyllable additions, disabled readers, 148, see also Syllables
Invented spelling, see also Spelling
creative writing and teaching spelling before reading, 302, 304–306
phonological awareness and reading relationship, 82–83
prediction of children’s reading achievement, 300
reading words in isolation, 299
spelling accuracy, 304–305
training and growth in reading ability, 177
Iowa Tests of Basic Skill, reading comprehension predictions and print exposure, 250, 251, 252
IQ, see Intelligence quotient
IRAS, see Interactive Reading Assessment System
IRE strategy, beginning literacy program, 229–230
Irregular spelling, pseudoword reading, 144
Irregular words
connection-forming process in site word learning, 14–15
errors in spelling, 28
Irregularities, English orthography and Word Work program, 328
Isolated words, mispronunciation and spoken word recognition, 105
J
Joint book reading, home experiences and word recognition, 265, 269–272
K
Key words, word identification block of beginning literacy program, 215–225
Khan-Lewis Phonological Analysis test, language development and phonological awareness, 109
Kid Kards, Word Work program, 329
L
LAC, see Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization test
Language
development and phonological awareness, 108–111
individual variance and print exposure, 236
knowledge and beginning literacy program, 225–226
-print system and Word Work program, 327
structure and instruction impact of intervention for reading disabilities, 181
Language log, beginning literacy program, 221–222
Latent variables, measurement and assessment of stability of phonological processing abilities, 168–169
Learning
implications of ROAR model, 129–133
motivation, 342
Lesson blocks, Word Work program, 329
Letter-name knowledge
instruction and phonological processing relation to beginning reading, 275
spelling association, 26
storybook reading relation, 279
use for early identification of reading disability, 178
training and phonological awareness relation to reading, 80, 82, 176
Letter-sound knowledge
at-risk and delayed readers, 213
instruction in primary grades, 304
phonological processing relation to beginning reading, 275
learning to read, 34
phonetic cue reading, 77
synergism with phonemic awareness, 324
training and benefits of spelling, 296,297
Omaha Public Schools, 337, 338
site word learning, 14–15, 16–17, 20, see also Mnemonics
Letter-string choice (LSC) test, orthographic versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition
first through third grade, 246, 247, 248, 249
Letters
knowledge
exposure and beginning word recognition, 278
learning to read, 33
patterns
decoding and learning to read, 7
development and site word learning, 17, 22–23
pronunciation confusion and phonological deficits in Arabic dyslexies, 152
symbol matching in strategy training study, 197
Lexical diffusion, word representation, 98, 100
Lexical knowledge, learning to read, 7, 34
Lexical memory, site word learning, 19, see also Memory
Lexical representation, see Word representation
Lexical restructuring model (LRM)
developmental origins of phonemic segments, 90–96, see also Phonemic segments, developmental origins
links with phonemic awareness and reading ability, 108–113
word representations, see also Word representations
early, 96–100
later, 100–108
Library centers
motivation for learning, 345
home experiences and word recognition, 265, 267
Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization (LAC) test, strategy training study, 200, 201
Lindamood Auditory Discrimination in Depth, teaching articulation patterns, 321
Linearity, English spelling system, 291
Linguistic awareness, see Phonological awareness
Linguistic complexity, phonological awareness skills relationships, 68–69, 72
LISREL analysis, alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness, 80
Literacy
acquisition
children’s spelling, 300
contextualized experience, 371
assessment through print exposure, 237–239
home activities and development of word recognition, 264–266, 267, 268
lifetime and early start in reading, 256
-related props and motivation for learning, 353
scaffolding, 370–371
switch to phonics and phonemes, 315–316
Literacy centers, motivation for learning, 344–346, 353, 355
Literacy instruction, beginning
best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 368
model of teacher experiences, 365–367
nature of outstanding first grade teaching, 358–365
philosophies for literacy development, 369–372
teacher model versus report of excellent national primary-level teachers, 367–369
Literacy program
at-risk and delayed readers
being word detectives and keeping a language log, 221–222
book discussion, 227
building a word wall, 215
completing a compare/contrast worksheet, 218
completing a rhyming word sort, 217–218
fully analyzing words, 218–219
generating and reading rhyming words, 216
independent reading and response, 227
literature, 230–231
looking through words, 224
parent-read-aloud book report, 226
participating in Echo reading, 223–224
playing ready-set-show, 216–217
playing what’s in my head, 218
process writing, 230
reading group, 227–230
reading predictable rhymes, 220–221
reading to a partner, 224–225
reading tongue twisters, 217
self-assessing word knowledge, 222
sharing with a partner, 222–223
spelling chant and check, 216
summarizing what I know about my language, 225–226
theory and research, 210–214
word ring practice, 226–227
writing structure language experience story, 215–216
writing words in Elkonin boxes, 219–220
model of curriculum
instructional design, 328–330
overview, 324–325
phonics, 325–328
Literature, reading achievement enhancement in treatment rooms and motivation for learning, 345–346
Literature program, beginning literacy program, 230–231
Logographic strategy
learning to spell, 295
reading by children, 298
Logos, recognition and visual cue reading, 75–76
Looking through words, beginning literacy program, 224
Low-income families, word recognition, see also Middle-income families
experiences involving rhyme, 273, 274, 278
home experiences, 265, 266, 267
phonics, 271–272
LRM, see Lexical restructuring model
LSC, see Letter-string choice test
M
Magazine recognition test (MRT)
early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 254, 255
measure of print exposure and orthographic versus phonological processing, 239
Making Sounds, Word Work program, 327
Making Words/Long Vowels, Word Work program, 327
Making Words/Short Vowels, Word Work program, 327, 328
Mapping relationships
decoding, 78
site word learning, 15
MAT, see Metropolitan Reading Achievement test
Matthew effect
decoding-in-context study, 193
print exposure, 237
strategy training study, 194
Word Work program, 332
Mechanistic perspective, literary instruction, 357
Memory
correlations to other phonological skills and reading, 166–167
demands and alphabetic strategy in spelling versus reading, 299
early word representation, 96
explanation of rate of information loss, 123
learning to read, 6, 7, 8, 11, 33
reading and spelling correlation, 27, 29
short-term
phonological recoding skills in dyslexia, 149
relation to reading, 164
vocabulary acquisition, 238
site word learning, 12, 16, 20, 21, 23
stability assessment in primary grades
latent variables, 168–169
significant disabilities associated with deficiency, 171, 172
unit-weighted composites, 169–170
working and phonological deficits
Arabic dyslexics, 151
Chinese dyslexics, 153–154
Portuguese dyslexics, 150
Memory span tasks, reading disabilities, 164
Mentoring, beginning literacy program, 224–225
Metacognitive knowledge, learning to read, 6
Metalinguistic knowledge
development in children, 163
-language interaction versus autonomy hypothesis, 108–109
Metaphonic principle, Word Work program, 316, 325, 336
Metropolitan Reading Achievement (MAT) test
early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 254, 255
orthographic versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition, 247, 248
Middle-income families, see also Low-income families
instruction in alphabet, 275–276
phonological awareness, 278
word recognition and home experiences, 265, 267
comprehension strategies, 272
Miscues
site word learning, 22
Mispronunciation detection task, spoken word recognition, 104–106
Misspelling
analysis of children’s and instruction, 301
beginning literacy program, 227
eye movement relationships, 24
reading frequency of words and learning to spell, 294
English spelling system, 291–292
Mnemonics
reading and spelling correlation, 26
site word learning, 16–17
Models of teaching, grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 360–361
Monitoring
accuracy of production of consonant-vowel-consonant units, 322
phonological awareness training for children with reading disabilities, 181
progress in letter knowledge and learning to read, 34
strategy training study, 198
writing and model teacher, 366
Morphemes, English orthography, 43, 49, 318
Morphology, words and learning the English spelling system, 291, 292, 293
Motivating contexts, literacy development
future directions, 352–355
how teachers are teaching word recognition skills, 348–352
research treatments that motivate students to read and write, 343–347
what is known, 342–343
Motivation
concept, 342
literacy and best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 369
MRT, see Magazine recognition test
Multisyllabic words, dyslexic versus normal readers, 149, see also Syllables
N
Naming explosion, early word representation, 98–100, see also Lexical restructuring model
Naming latency tasks, spoken word recognition, 107
Native language, infant speech perception, 94–95
Necessary but not sufficient patterns, phonological awareness skills, 72–74
Neighborhood Activation Model (NAM), word representations, 101
spoken word recognition, 92–93, 106, 107–108
Nelson-Denny Reading Test, early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 255, 256
Non program, strategy training study, 197
Nonwords
orthographies other than English and use of analogies, 51
repetition and memory relation to reading, 164
scoring of dyslexic versus normal readers, 191
spelling training, 297
strategy training study, 197, 199, 200
decoding-in-context comparison, 201, 202, 203
Note taking, beginning literacy program, 229
Nursery rhymes
childhood experiences and word recognition development, 273
exposure relation to phonological awareness and early reading, 276
phonological instruction in classrooms, 57
O
Oddity task, orthographic versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition, 245
Omaha Public School System, Word Work program, 337–338
Onset-rime awareness
reading acquisition, 45
rime analogies in English, 50
phonics programs, 320
Optimal reading hypothesis
basis and characterization, 124
evidence, 125–129
Oral cloze, phonological deficits in Chinese dyslexics, 153–154
Oral language
knowledge about in capable readers, 211
phonological processing, 163
training and reading ability in primary grades, 175
Oral reading fluency, Word Work program, 333
Oral segmentation tests, spelling training, 297
Organismic perspective, literary instruction, 357
Orientation reversal errors, disabled versus normal readers, 147–148, see also Errors
Orthographic analogies
classroom practice, 54–56
integration into the classroom and reading progress, 57–58
reading development in English, 47–49
Orthographic knowledge
patterns
English spelling system, 290–291, 292, 293
learning to spell, 295, 300–302
skills of poor readers, 144
phonological knowledge interactions and learning to read, 54, 56
print exposure correlation, 238–239
Orthographic lexicon, buildup and role of print exposure, 249–250
Orthographic neighborhood, evidence for optimal reading, 126–129
Orthographic processing, word recognition variance, 240
independent of phonological processing, 248–249
first graders, 240–245
Orthographic segment, consistency ratio and predictions in ROAR model, 124–129
Orthographic transparency
English versus other spelling systems, 43
rime awareness connection and analogy use, 51–52
Orthography, see also Specific entries
phonological awareness, 46–47
use of analogies, 51–52
Otis-Lennin School Ability Test, early reading acquisition relation to reading experience, 253
P
PA, see Phonological analysis condition
Pair-associated learning task, children’s approach to reading, 298
PAL, see Phonological analysis with letters program
Parents
participation and models of teaching, 362
role in children’s literacy, 283
Parent-read-aloud book report, beginning literacy program, 226
Partial alphabetic phase, site word learning, 19–21, see also Alphabet
Partial segmentation tasks, phonological awareness, 71,72, see also Segmentation
reading relationship, 83
Participation, best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 368–369
Partner reading, beginning literacy program, 224–225
Partner-sharing, beginning literacy program, 222–223
Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT), word recognition
grade-level gains, 193
orthographic versus phonological processing, 246, 247, 248, 249
strategy training study, 201, 202, 204, 205
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)
early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 255, 256
reading and spelling correlation, 25
Perception, early word representation, 96–97
Philosophy, teaching and grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 360
Phoneme
identity and phonological awareness, 71–72
levels of difficulty, 70–71
reading achievement, 80, 82, 83
isolation, see Partial segmentation tasks
-phonics, see Phonics, -phonemes
segmentation, see Segmentation
spelling
English versus other systems, 43
training and concept, 297
spoken word recognition, 104
Phoneme transposition task, orthographic versus phonological processing relation to variance in word recognition, 241, 242
Phoneme-grapheme knowledge, see Grapheme-phoneme knowledge
Phonemic awareness
decoding-in-context study on reading disabilities, 193
dyslexic versus normal readers, 149, 190
Chinese dyslexics, 153–154
instruction in elementary school, 303, 304, 305, 307
explicit and lack of motivation for learning, 354–355
lexical restructuring model, 89
reading ability links, 108–113
print exposure and orthographic lexicon buildup, 250
spelling relationship
benefits, 295–298
phoneme-grapheme knowledge, 300
strategy training study, 194, 199, 200
synergism with letter-sound knowledge, 324
teacher instruction and word recognition enhancement, 348–352
traditional programs, 317
word representations, 102
articulation relation, 321–324
Phonemic segments, developmental origins
accessibility of emergent positions, 90–92
infant speech perception, 93–96
models of adult spoken word recognition, 92–93
Phonemic sensitivity, instruction for teachers of spelling, 301, see also Instruction
Phonemic structure, spelling words in English spelling system, 290
Phonetic confusability, dyslexia, 149
learning word recognition, 76–77
phonological awareness, 70–71, 83
site word learning, 20–21
Phonetic feature substitution errors, disabled versus normal readers, 147–148, see also Errors
Phonetic mobility, speech production in early word representation, 97–98
Phonetic perception, lexical restructuring, 102–103
Phonetic recoding, phonological deficits in Chinese dyslexics, 154
Phonetics
Chinese language, 152
spelling in English spelling system, 292
Phonics
distinctions with phonological awareness, 84
explicit
traditional programs, 317
instruction and lack of motivation for learning, 354–355
model teacher and instruction, 366
-phonemes
Fruitvale Elementary School, 330–334
Hickory Grove Elementary School, 334–337
model of curriculum design for early literacy, 324–330
Omaha Public Schools, 337–338
policy implications, 339–340
what to teach and how to teach it, 317–324
skills instruction and intervention for reading disabilities, 181–182
word recognition enhancement and teacher instruction, 348–352
Word Work program, 325–328
Phonogram patterns, phonics programs, 320
Phonological analysis (PA) condition, strategy training study, 194, 195, 196–198
pattern of student gains, 202–205
Phonological analysis with letters (PAL) program, strategy training study, 197
Phonological awareness
acquisition of spoken versus written language, 42
at-risk and delayed readers, 212
correlations to other phonological skills and reading, 166–167
deficits in adult dyslexia, 150
early reading
alphabet knowledge, 79–81
defining reading, 74–78
defining reading in literature, 79
definition, 66–67
learning to read, 46
levels of difficulty, 67–71
other speculations, 84–85
phonological awareness relationship, 81–83
relationships among skills, 71–72
response to training, 175–177
rhyme exposure, 276–278
what is meant by “is related to,” 72–74
language development, 108–111
nature, development, and relation to reading, 162–164
orthographic knowledge and reading development association, 53
predictor of reading development in differing orthographies, 46–47
reading disabilities
early identification, 178
instruction and intervention, 181–182
reading acquisition and levels of, 44–46
stability assessment in primary grades
latent variables, 168–169
significant disabilities associated with deficiency, 171, 172
unit-weighted composites, 169–170
training and growth in reading ability, 177
Phonological deficits, reading-disabled versus normal beginning readers, 157
Phonological instruction, orthographic correlation, 58
Phonological knowledge, spelling relationship, 300–301
Phonological processes/processing
consistency of disabilities and word reading, 170–174
cognitive ability relationships, 154–155
deficits
beginning reading, 155–157
general cognitive ability, 154–155
other phonological skills, 148–150
pseudoword reading, 141–148
universality of in dyslexia: evidence from other languages, 150–154
reading disabilities, 102
factors related to stability assessment of phonological skills, 174–175
latent variables, 168–169
unit-weighed composites, 169–170
impact of intensive interventions, 180–184
phonological awareness, 162–164
responses to training, 175–177
phonological short-term memory, 164
practical applications of research to diagnoses and intervention, 177–178
print exposure relationship, 244–245
rapid automatic naming of verbal material, 164–165
relations of phonological abilities to one another, 166–167
use of phonological measures for early identification of disabilities, 178–180
word recognition variance relation to orthographic processing, 239–240
first graders, 240–245
Phonological production tasks, dyslexic versus normal readers, 149
Phonological recoding, see Decoding
Phonological rimes, evidence for optimal reading, 126
Phonological sensitivity, development and home literacy experiences, 281
Phonological skills
relationships to one another and reading, 166–167
strategy training study, 200
decoding-in-context study comparison, 202
Phonology knowledge, spelling, 300–302
English spelling system, 292
PIAT, see Peabody Individual Achievement Test
Picture books
oral language training and reading ability, 176
word recognition
home experiences, 264–265
joint reading experiences, 270, 271
reading frequency, 280–281
Picture referents, mispronunciation in spoken word recognition, 105
Picture-naming task, site word reading, 9
Plausible errors, disabled versus normal readers, 148, see also Errors
Playsong games, home experiences and word recognition, 274
Poems, home experiences and word recognition, 273–274
Policy implications, Word Work program, 339–340
Portuguese, phonological deficits in dyslexia, 150, 151
PPVT, see Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Practicing skills, motivation for learning, 343, 344
Predictability, English spelling system, 291
Predictable-rhyme stories, beginning literacy program, 220–221, 223
Predictions
reading and phonemic segmentation, 15
strategy training study, 198
student achievement and grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 360
Prereading, developmental origins of phonemic segment, 91, see also Reading
Preschool, word recognition
home experiences, 268
phonics/phonemic awareness, 351
Preschool Language Scale-Revised, language development and phonological awareness, 109
Pre-alphabetic phase, site word learning, 18–19, see also Alphabet
Print exposure
assessing literacy environment, 237–239
attention to in capable readers, 210–212
comprehension predictions, 250–255
deciphering and learning reading, 4
first-grade students, 240–241
first- through third-grade students, 245–247
early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 255–257
motivating contexts in literacy development, 341
orthographic lexicon buildup, 249–250
phonological processing skill relation, 244–245
task convergent validity and comparability in orthographic processing tasks, 247–248
whole language approach to literacy instruction, 303
word recognition
enhancement, 348
home experiences, 264–265, 267
impact, 235–239
storybook reading, 279
variance and orthographic versus phonological processing, 242–244, 248–249
Word Work program, 328, 333, 339
Print-related talk, joint reading experiences and word recognition, 270
Problem solving, Word Work program, 327, 329
Productivity, Word Work program, 328
Project READ Plus, literacy program, 324–330
Pronunciation
consistency and evidence of optimal reading, 126–129
grapheme and Word Work program, 322
rules and pseudoword reading, 143–144, 145
site word learning, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21
vowels in English versus other spelling systems, 43
Props, literacy-related and motivation for learning, 344
Prosodic information
early word representation, 96
segmental information comparison, 94
Protoreading, home experiences and word recognition, 271
Pseudowords
beginning literacy program, 224
deficiencies in adult dyslexics, 149–150, 151
phonological processing deficits, 141–148
pronunciation and decoding, 78
spelling of and reading correlation, 30, 31
whole language approach to spelling, 303
Purpose awareness, models of teaching, 365
Q
Questionnaire
home experiences and word recognition, 271
parents responses, 264–266
teacher practices and identified excellence in primary school, 368
R
Radical, Chinese language, 152
Rapid automatic naming
correlations to other phonological skills and reading, 164–167
stability assessment in primary grades
disabilities associated with deficiency, 171, 172
latent variables, 168–169
unit-weighted composites, 169–170
training responses and growth in reading ability, 177
use for early identification of reading disability, 178
Rating scales, parents and development of word recognition, 264–266
Rational analysis, reading, 123–125
Rational reading, see ROAR model
Raven Progressive Coloured Matrices, early reading acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253, 255, 256
Reading
acquisition and relation to reading experience, 253–257
attitudes and library center as motivation for learning, 345
basic processes, 4–6
beginning and phonological processing skills, 155–157
development and interactive theories, 53–54
dialecticism, 370
disabilities
applications of research to diagnoses/intervention, 177–178
auditory processing difficulties, 323
deficiencies in phonological processing, 170–174
spelling skills, 31–32
emergent position of phonemic segment, 91
grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 359, 360
groups and beginning literacy program, 227–230
lexical restructuring, 108–113
monitoring and model teacher, 366
phonological awareness
poor versus good, 42
relationship,81–83
rhyme exposure, 276–278
print exposure relation, 253
variance and volume, 236
processes versus methods, 3–4
properties of skilled and statistical optimization, 122–123
reading words in text, 6–12
rime analogy instruction, 55–56
site word learning and alphabetic knowledge
capabilities that enable beginners, 15–17
consolidated alphabetic phase, 22–24
full alphabetic phase, 21–22
partial alphabetic phase, 19–21
phases of development, 17–18
pre-alphabetic phase, 18–19
site word learning and spelling knowledge
normal and disabled readers, 31–32
overview, 24–28
reciprocal relationships, 28–31
spelling, 307
groups and instruction, 301
integration with, 309
learning and relation to, 293–295
training and acquisition, 296, 297
teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 368
word recognition
home experiences, 271, 278–281
orthographic versus phonological processing and variance, 249
Reading disabilities, see also Dyslexia
lexical restructuring model, 102, 111–113
pseudoword reading and phonological processing deficits, 142
Reading Fluency test, Word Work program, 331, 332, 333
Reading for entertainment, home experiences and word recognition, 267, 269
Reading with Orthographic and Special Segmentation (ROSS), intervention in syntactic and semantic word associations, 191, see also Decoding-in-context study
Reading/Writing Community and Projects, Word Work program curriculum chart, 327
Ready-set-show, beginning literacy program, 216–217
Real text, reading and dialecticism, 370
Reciprocal teaching, strategy training study, 198
Redundancy, learning to read, 11
Reflective learning, Word Work program, 329
Regular words, Word Work program, 319
Regularization, vowels and pseudoword reading, 146
Reinforcement, models of teaching, 362
Remedial instruction, see Instruction
Repeated book reading, home experiences and word recognition, 271, see also Reading
Review process, Word Work program, 329
Rhyme
exposure and relation to phonological awareness, 276–278
families and English spelling system, 44
home experiences and word recognition, 266, 273
Rhyme awareness
predictor of reading development in differing orthographies, 47, 49
reading development in English, 52
rime analogies correlation, 50
Rhyme discrimination task, phonological deficit studies, 153–154
Rhyming
definition of phonological awareness, 66
learning to read, 10
normal versus disabled readers, 149
Ready-set-show word game, 217
word generation and beginning literacy program, 216
Rhyming word sort task, beginning literacy program, 217–218
Rime analogies
orthographic instruction in classroom, 57–58
orthographies other than English, 51
reading development in children, 48, 49
instruction, 55–56
rhyme awareness correlations, 50
Rime units, word recognition in English, 49, 53
ROAR model
evidence for optimal reading, 125–129
implications for learning, 129–133
rational analysis of reading, 123–125
relative frequency importance, 133
representation importance, 133–134
“why” question, 122–123
Root-affix patterns, Word Work program, 327
ROSS, see Reading with Orthographic and Special Segmentation
Rote memorization, spelling words, 308–309
Rules
English spelling system, 290–292
grapheme-phoneme conversion, see Grapheme-phoneme conversions rules
S
Scaffolding
extensive use and models of teaching, 363
literacy instruction, 370–371
model teacher, 366
teachers and motivation for learning, 354
Scattergram analysis, phonological awareness skills relationships, 71
Scatterplot, Word Work program
letter-sound knowledge, 337–338
reading fluency, 332
writing samples, 335
School-based program, reading enhancement and motivation for learning, 345–346
Schwa vowels, errors in spelling, 28, see also Vowels
Science/literature program, reading enhancement and motivation for learning, 346
Second-grade students, instruction in phonics/phonemic awareness and word recognition, 351
Segmental information, prosodic information comparison in infants, 94
Segmentation
at-risk and delayed readers, 212
decoding-in-context study, 192, 203
later word representations, 102, 107
skills and reading progress, 56
spelling relation, 296
whole language approach, 303–304
teaching and levels of difficulty of phonological awareness, 70–71
training and reading ability, 176, 177
Self-correction
decoding-in-context study comparison with strategy training study, 204
learning to read, 12
Self-directed learning, motivation relationship, 343, 344–345, 353
Self-evaluation, beginning literacy program, 227
Self-regulation
models of teaching, 363, 364–365
Self-selected tasks, reading enhancement and motivation for learning, 345–346
Self-teaching, at-risk and delayed readers, 214
Self-teaching hypothesis, strategy training study, 198
decoding-in-context comparison, 202
Sentences
meaning and phonological deficits in Chinese dyslexics, 153–154
writing and beginning literacy program, 227
Serbo-Croatian, English spelling system differences, 43
Shape
acoustic of words and early word representation, 96
site word learning
Similarity judgment task, spoken word recognition, 103–104
Single-phoneme rimes, English spelling system, 45–46
Single-word reading, see ROAR model
Single-word reading tests, invented versus traditional spelling, 305
Site vocabularies, importance in learning to read, 12, see also Vocabularies
Site word learning
disabled readers, 32
learning to read, 7
meaning and reading instruction, 4
memory importance to reading, 8–9, 11
requirement of alphabetic knowledge, 12–15
capabilities that enable beginners, 15–17
developmental phases, 17–24
Site word recognition
at-risk and delayed readers, 212, 213
beginning literacy program, 226–227
Skills practice, best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 368
Social-cognitive learning, Word Work program, 316
Social collaboration, motivation for learning, 343, 344
Social constructivist theory, motivation for learning, 342–343
Sociocultural differences, home experiences and word recognition, 263, 264–266, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272
Socioeconomic status, teacher instruction and word recognition, 348–349
Sound-based strategy
decoding, 78
spelling by children, 298
Sound-letter knowledge
phonological awareness and progress in reading, 79
spelling in English spelling system, 291
writing process in beginning literacy program, 230
writing words in Elkonin boxes, 219–220
Sound-letter matches
what’s in my head game, 218
word detective game, 221–222
Sound-to-word matching tasks, phonological awareness, 66, 70
Special education, reading disabilities, 180
Special instruction, see Instruction
Special rule word production, mastery by disabled versus normal readers, 146
Specific reading disability, see Dyslexia
Speech
development and correlation to phonological awareness skills, 108–111
early word representation, 97–98
perception
acquisition of spoken language in infants, 41–42
developmental origins of phonemic segment, 91, 93–96
processing and role of brain, 5
-reading relationship and developmental limitations, 112
Spelling
approach at the early elementary school level, 302–309
beginning literacy program, 216
pattern awareness, 218, 219–221, 223, 224
benefits of reading and phonemic awareness, 295–298
English system, 290–293
groups in elementary school, 308
knowledge of phonology and orthography, 300–302
learning does not come about through reading, 293–295
memory and effect on reading, 29–30
print exposure, 238
programs and models of teaching, 362
pseudowords in normal versus disabled readers, 148–149
-reading reciprocal relationships during development, 28–31
use of the alphabetic principle before use in reading, 298–300
Word Work program, 322, 327, 333, 335, 336
word recognition variance, orthographic versus phonological processing
first through third grade, 246, 247, 248, 249
Spelling demons, difficulties with, 27–28
Spelling knowledge
decoding, 78
site wording learning, 24–32
Spelling-sound patterns, Word Work program, 316–317
Spello program, strategy training study, 197
Spoken language, understanding and learning written language, 41
Spoken word recognition
gating paradigm, 106–108
lexical processing and reading disabilities, 112
mispronunciation detection, 104–106
models, 92–93
similarity judgments, 103–104
Spoonerisms, levels of difficulty of phonological awareness, 68
Stage models, learning to read, 53
Stage theories, learning the English spelling system, 292, 293
Standardized testing, see also Specific entries
early identification of reading disability, 179
reading enhancement and motivation for learning, 346
Word Work program, 331–332
Stanford Achievement Test, orthographic versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition, 241, 242, 243–244
Stanford Binet Intelligence Test, stability of phonological processing skills, 169
Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, reading comprehension predictions and print exposure, 250, 252
Statistical process, ROAR model, 124
Stepwise regression procedure, phonological deficit study, 153, 154
Story
genre and beginning literacy program, 230–231
reading gains from strategy training study, 194, 195
writing and benefits for children, 296
Storybook, word recognition skills
reading frequency, 280–281
reading at home, 265, 269–272, 278–279
Strategy approach, learning the English spelling system, 292–293
Strategy training study
background, 194
comparison with decoding-in-context study, 201–206
comprehension strategy treatment, 198–199
design, 194–196
phonological analysis treatment, 196–198
results of study, 199–201
Street signs, instruction in alphabet and beginning reading, 275
Stress, pseudoword reading in Hebrew versus English, 147
Stretching, Word Work program, 322, 323
Stroop phenomenon, learning to read, 9
Structured language experience story, writing in beginning literacy program, 215–216
Success, motivation for learning, 344
Suffixes, Word Work program, 327
Syllabary, mastery and phonics programs, 320
Syllabic awareness, reading acquisition, 45
Syllables
early word representation, 98, 99
building in strategy training study, 197
pseudowords and phonological processing deficits in reading disabilities, 142
Syntactic skills
acquisition and starting small phenomenon, 132
learning to read, 11–12
phonological deficits, 150, 151, 153, 154
Synthetic skills, training and reading ability, 176–177
T
Task convergent validity/comparability, orthographic versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition, 247–248
Teacher modeling, motivation for learning, 344–345
Teachers
control and lack of motivation, 342
guided programs in thematic play and motivation for learning, 347
knowledge of English spelling system as precursor to teaching, 301
national excellence in primary school, 367–369
Teaching, see Instruction
Temporal dimension, decoding/spelling and articulation, 323
Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA), phonological awareness skills, 71–72
Text processing, learning to read, 6–12
Text-level reading, Word Work program, 329
Thematic play centers, reading enhancement and motivation for learning, 347
Thematic projects, Word Work program, 327
Thinking skills, model teacher, 366, 367
Tile Tests of Word Reading and Sentence Reading, Word Work program, 337–338
Time allocation, Word Work program, 329
Timed word reading, spelling training, 297
print exposure
orthographic versus phonological processing, 239, 243–244
reading comprehension predictions, 250, 251, 252, 253
word recognition variance, orthographic versus phonological processing
first grader, 241
first through third grade, 247, 248
Toddlers, word representations, 96–100
Token frequency, pronunciation time and optimal reading, 127
Tonal language, patterns in Chinese, 152
Tone discrimination task, phonological deficit studies, 152–154
Tongue twisters, beginning literacy program, 217
TOPA, see Test of Phonological Awareness
Topic development, grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 359, 360
Topical words, Word Work program, 319
Traditional spelling, accuracy, 304–305, see also Spelling
Trainers, student interaction and gains in word recognition, 205
Training, see Instruction
Transfer effects, reading and spelling, 29–30, 294–295
Treatment rooms, reading enhancement and motivation for learning, 343–347
TRT, see Title recognition test
U
Unit-weighted composites, measurement and assessment of phonological processing abilities, 169–170
Unknown words
learning to read, 11
V
Visual cue reading
development of site word learning, 18–19
learning word recognition, 75–76
Visual cues, learning to spell, 295
Visual knowledge
about print in capable readers, 210–211
at-risk and delayed readers, 212
Visual sound forms task, dyslexic versus normal readers, 149
Vocabulary
decoding abilities and print exposure, 238
development
emergent position of phonemic segment, 91
infant speech perception, 95
model teacher, 367
inadequate and effect on reading frequency/ability, 236
phonological awareness, 110–111
spoken and acquisition of written language, 42
spoken word recognition, 105, 106, 107–108
stability when assessed as unit-weighted composites, 169–170
word representations, 98–100, 101
Word Work program, 327
Voiced/voiceless discrimination, phonetic perception in childhood, 103
Voice-onset time (VOT), phonetic perception in childhood, 103
VOT, see Voice-onset time
Vowel-consonant pattern, beginning literacy program, 217
Vowel-consonant units, misspelling in English spelling system, 292
Vowels
development of site word learning, 20
English orthography, 319
errors
phonological deficits in Arabic dyslexics, 152
reading-disabled versus normal beginner readers, 145–148, 156
problematic in decoding and spelling, 321
pronunciation, see Pronunciation
W
What’s in my head, beginning literacy program, 218
Whole language method
literacy instruction, 303, 357
transfer of reading knowledge to spelling knowledge, 294–295
Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT)
decoding-in-context study, 192
strategy training study, 201, 204
reading skill in early years compared with adolescence, 255, 256
Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R), phonological processing, 155–156
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised
factors influencing stability of phonological processing, 169, 175
impact of intervention and reading disabilities, 182, 183
Woodcock-Johnson Word Identification Test, rhyme exposure and phonological awareness, 277
Word(s)
context versus isolation and learning to spell, 294, 303
familiarity, see Familiar words
identity and learning to read, 11
production and Word Work program, 323, 324
reading and automaticity, 9–10
reading speed and development of site word learning, 23
Word analysis, model teacher, 366–367
Word cognition, letter knowledge relation, 278
Word detectives, beginning literacy program, 221–222
Word games, phonological awareness and early reading, 277
Word hunts, beginning literacy program, 223
Word identification block, beginning literacy program, 215–225
Word knowledge
capable readers, 210–212
diagnosing gaps in at-risk and delayed students, 218–219
self-assessment in beginning literacy program, 222
Word-level reading, stability assessment in primary grades
stability of significant disabilities associated with deficiency, 171, 172, 173
latent variables, 168–169
unit-weighted composites, 169–170
Word lists, spelling instruction, 309
Word-naming latency, consistency ratio of orthographic segment, 126–128
Word meanings
attentiveness in capable readers, 211, 212
at-risk and delayed readers, 212
development of site word learning, 17
visual cue reading associations, 76
Word recognition
decoding-in-context study, 192, 193
strategy training study, 201, 202, 203–204
deficits in adult dyslexics, 150
defining reading, 74–78
development and parental response to questionnaires and rating scales, 264–266
digit span relation, 299
isolation versus in context, 79
phonological deficits, 150, 151, 153, 154
rhyme, 273
skills and home reading activities, 278–281
joint reading experiences, 269–272
strategy training study, 202
variance relation to orthographic versus phonological processing, 242, 248–249
word representations, 100
Word Recognition and Phonetic Structure Acquisition (WRAPSA), infant speech perception, 95
Word representations
early
perception, 96–97
speech production, 97–98
vocabulary spurt and beginnings of segments, 98–100
later
empirical evidence for gradual, 102–108
lexical restructuring model, 100–102
orthographic versus phonological processing and variance in word recognition, 246
Word ring practice, beginning literacy program, 226–227
Word sorting, Word Work program, 319
Word-specific knowledge, reading and spelling correlation, 26, 27
Word-to-word matching tasks, definition of phonological awareness, 66
Word Work program, see also Specific entries
characterization and advantages, 316
consonant-vowel-consonant units, 321, 328
Fruitvale, 330–334
Hickory Grove, 334–337
Omaha Public Schools, 337–338
Worksheets, use and models of teaching, 362
World knowledge, learning to read, 11
WRAPSA, see Word Recognition and Phonetic Structure Acquisition
WRAT, see Wide Range Achievement Test
WRAT-R, see Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised
Writing
ability and spelling relation, 294
beginning literacy program, 230
grounded theory of outstanding instruction, 359, 360
high quality and best teaching practices by outstanding teachers, 368
monitoring and model teacher, 366
motivational and cognitive benefits, 296
Word Work program, 333, 334, 338
Z
Zone of proximal development, literacy instruction, 370