When you start a project, you need the right people functioning in the right structure and in the right place. Early stage companies must compete with the larger resource base of established organizations, making attracting talent more difficult. Then, even when you think you have the right people in place, you need to bring the best out of them given the culture and overall organization of the company or project team. This chapter will help readers focus on the OD issues that will best lead to long-range success.

Getting Organized

There are many elements that contribute to the probability of the success of any commercial entity. Possibly the most significant element is the team of individuals called on to actually execute the idea’s plan and realize its commercial potential. Within the set of decisions that control the organizational model is the choice of framework within which they will operate. Many potential investors/bankers look at the team as the most significant element of their assessment. They are the ones who can deliver the project’s promise. Other investors focus on financials and markets. Although domain expertise is important, the role of the “serial entrepreneur” cannot be diminished. Allegedly they bring perspective, experience, and industry recognition. Some argue that these attributes are overstated and value the naiveté and enthusiasm of the new entrepreneur.

In an article published in the April 2011 Harvard Business Review entitled “What Entrepreneurs Don’t Learn from Failure,” Deniz Ucgasaran, Paul Westhead, and Mike Wright cite a study in the UK in which 576 serial entrepreneurs were interviewed. The data showed that the outcomes of their current projects were not significantly better than those started by first-time entrepreneurs. In a pithy reported comment one person was quoted as saying “Spending your time thinking about what happened is a ticket to the graveyard.” Investors who value experience highly also carry the responsibilities of exploring the “lessons learned” during an entrepreneur’s previous exercises.

Rather than join in this discussion about the value of serial experience, I offer that the role of the team is not static and changes with each shift realized during a company’s growth. Thus the skillsets presented by a close-knit startup team may not be sufficient to grow the company or its projects. The good news is that these changes can be anticipated and resources can be brought to bear to change that limitation. Examples include training and consulting. The goal is to provide resources that enable the team to make these transitions. This idea is suggested presented in Figure 9-1.

When I encounter early stage teams in my consulting work, I ask that the visible managers complete a “clean” copy of the sheet shown in Figure 9-1 and try to identify where they are in the evolution and maturity of each function. That set of observations is usually quite fascinating as the teams are still quite small and usually offer more consistent views.

To illustrate this, let’s look at the Accounting function. In the startup phase, simple Excel models executed by members of the team are sufficient. Later, packages such as Intuit’s QuickBooks are required because of the number and complexity of transactions required to sustain the business. The team can anticipate this by training people, hiring consultants, utilizing online services, and so on. There is a particularly unsettling trend among outside investors to say to the startup team that they are not experienced enough to grow the company and either fire the team (or individual members), as allowed by the terms and conditions of the investment, or move them to less visible positions. Either outcome can be avoided. Beyond the excitement and organizational flexibility of a startup company, few want to stay in that fragile and unstable state. Individual growth becomes important and valued.

The Legal Structure

Early in the process of commercialization, certain organizational decisions need to be formulated. An important one is to understand which corporate format serves the project best. Generally, the nuances of this decision are complex enough that they remain in the space of legal opinion. Although the term is broad, a simple form of incorporation that creates companies is most common. But even incorporation has multiple paths. There may be differences in incorporation details on a state filing level, but they always ask for these:

• Business purpose. This includes a general statement and detailed definition.
• Corporate name, including identifiers such as corporation.
• Registered agent, including a hard physical address for that person.
• An incorporator. The person (usually an attorney) who actually files the Certificate of Incorporation.
• Share per value. Usually a fictitious value such as $1 per share.
• Number of authorized shares of stock at the time of filing. In Massachusetts this number, although arbitrary, sets the filing fee.

The concept of a corporation as we know it today has its roots in the Latin term “corpus” which means “body of people.” Its significance became more prevalent in English law, where royal charters were granted to certain trading merchants to protect their business territories and allow the formation of taxable entities. According to the text The Anatomy of Corporate Law,¹ the real push to create the modern form of incorporation came with the Industrial Revolution of the mid-1800s whereby the commercial need for business structures outstripped the government’s ability to issue royal charters.

We will soon see that there are multiple forms of modern incorporation. In common, they have certain attributes that serve the commercial project’s journey well. To list a few:

• The corporation has a separate legal identity. It is separated from the owner’s assets. This allows it to do commerce, write contracts, and accept funds independent of the ownership.
• Consistent with that, it can sell shares in public stock trading markets and participate in private equity offerings.
• It allows governances by an independent board and can delegate operating authority to management.
• It allows for an orderly liquidation of assets and equity. This allows individuals to continue employment through changes of ownership.
• It can participate in certain tax incentives that are not available to individuals.

Within the term “incorporated,” there are multiple nuances worthy of consideration. They are embodied in tax, government, and shareholder reporting, and scope of ownership attributes. Some of the common ones include LLC, proprietorships, and partnerships. Each has advantages and limitations. An LLC, for example, avoids the double taxation on corporate profits and individual dividends to its owners. It limits the number of shareholders to 75, which might limit the organization’s ability to raise capital. The LLC model is not available to banks and investment banking organizations.

In addition, there are tax considerations offered in Chapter C and Chapter S filings, which focus on the tax obligations of stock earning distributions and equity participation/obligation rights. It would be tempting to try to delineate the differences here, but the exact combinations of tax, legal, and ownership attributes lie in the hands of the legal and accounting professionals. The commercialization/market dynamics aspects would be an overlay to their recommendations.

The Mechanics

Beyond the legal and tax considerations are the tactical aspects of how the organization works. How decisions are made, how is capital distributed, how do reporting functions operate, and how do budgets/schedules work? These options are best described in a series of hierarchal models envisioned as functional, product/technology, and market driven. Let’s look at each in the following sections.

The Functional Option

The most prevalent form of organizational structure is called the functional model. It is a hierarchal structure that starts with direction from the board of directors and operates through the Chief Executive Officer. It relies on a reporting structure of functional reports such as the Chief Operating Officer (COO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Marketing Officer (CMO), and so on. Because of these titles, the level of management is called the “C” level. In other variations, these folks are referred to as Vice Presidents and the C nomenclature is not used. IBM and many other large organizations have promulgated a “rule of six” that allows only six reports in each level of the organization. An example of a functional organization chart is shown in Figure 9-2.

Although this is a generic version of an organization chart, it reflects the rule of six, which suggests that organizational models of reporting that optimize around six reports. The “Other” area reflects that these models must be adapted to the needs of each organization. For example, if they were a pharmaceutics medical device project, it would show a C-level regulatory position. Similarly, if it were a multinational organization, it might have a C-level international role.

The advantages of this model are that they allow the depth of specialization to work. Skillsets and experience can be combined to become more effective and thus results in more efficient operations. Productivity can be measured and is usually considered higher in this approach. I suspect that is why it is so popular. All of this is especially true in earlier stage organizations where the “bench strength” tends to be limited. It is not without its drawbacks as it requires top management skill in ensuring the clarity of goals and effort to keep the functional areas separated. Coordination is an additional responsibility to avoid the risk of the “silo” mentality, where the groups do not coordinate with each other. Both of these risk factors can be managed.

The chart shown in Figure 9-2 implies a finished and completely mature organization. This is rarely the case. Personnel changes, hiring challenges, budgets, and most importantly stages of growth enter the dialogue. Early stage organizations thrive on informality and thus lack of structure. With growth there is an increasing need for more formal approaches. There are also other models, as discussed next.

Product-Based Organizations

There are many alternative forms of organizational structures. A common variation is the product-based divisional model. This choice is usually driven by customer grouping or product attributes. A classic example is the General Motors model, whereby there is a Chevrolet Division, Pontiac Division, Cadillac Division, and so on. Each division carries its own financials, marketing, sales, and manufacturing capability. A clear advantage of this approach is the ability to create strong and differentiated product identities. One wonders what the efficiency and productivity issues might be as individual functional roles are developed. A sample model might look like the one shown in Figure 9-3.

One might argue that all cars have tires, radios, engines, and so on. Yet the marketing folks might push back on the need for differentiated product lines to meet the needs of different customer demographics. There is certainly the space for additional variations on these two approaches.

Other Approaches

Organizational structure design is more of an art than a science. The organizational formation may be ruled by strong personalities, industry mores, or market drivers. Each carries its own attributes. Each is controlled by the company’s maturity or the project’s growth. Matrix organizations whereby divisions are made cross-functionally were in vogue in recent years. Today there is a push toward flatter organizations, where much of the hierarchal and bureaucratic influences are diminished. The needs of the project best control the decision process. Commercialization success should be the decision arbitrar for the creations and change of the model. Organizational change is always disruptive, yet the model is always under pressure to change from customer and market needs and of course from growth.

One alternative approach was employed by IBM in the development of the Blade server platform in 2006. In a paper presented to the Journal of Product Innovation,² Charles Snow, Oystein Fjelderstad, and others wrote “Organizing Continuous Product Development and Commercialization: The Collaborative Community of Firms” and traced the development of the Blade server product system and how multiple firms were invited by IBM early in the project. In doing this, IBM acknowledged a) that they would need help in bringing the technology to market and b) it would bring the resultant project to market faster. The authors also noted that the market projection for the technology was somewhat uncertain and that this model was built in other organizations that were committed to its success and acceptance. Snow et al. also acknowledged the potential for conflicts and communication problems, but felt that the presence of a strong central source like IBM would anchor this.

Moving Forward

Although a great deal of time and effort is allocated to the choice of the specific organizational model to be implemented for a particular project or startup team, there are several themes that may control the discussion. They include the following.

The place in the lifecycle of the organization. In early stage entities there is a given sense of informality. It is a team in which job descriptions are fluid, distribution of tasks is flexible, and time domain pressures and deadlines are met by the whole team. Technical competence is rewarded (and valued). Governance and performance metrics are secondary. Compensation is not formalized and usually less than market equivalent as the organizations strive to preserve precious capital. Individual characteristics and contributions of the players become important attributes at this stage. Some individuals thrive in this space and become ill-suited for the demands of the maturing organizations.

As the projects move forward, the number of personalities increase and the beginnings of the growth model appear. Functional teams emerge, informal job descriptions are utilized, and the beginnings of cohesive compensation procedures fall into place. In addition to the technical competence so critical in the early stages, leadership and communication skills increase. External resources such as consultants and other service providers become part of the team. Not all of the early stage individuals are suited for this path but infusions of training, consultants, and mentor-based coaching can help.

A third stage of maturity enters with the appearance of the professional disciplines of Human Resource professionals, job descriptions, and more formal performance reviews. Sometimes external pressures such as financial reporting and regulatory needs such as compliance reporting set the timing of those changes. Certainly customer needs remain a high priority and functions such as customer order fulfillment and after-sale support enter the mix.

Finding, Motivating, and Keeping Talent

As the number of individuals increases, the formality of their interactions occurs. With that, the need for acquiring these resources increases in scope and complexity. Professional recruiters (head hunters), job fairs, and employee referral programs now play an important role. The challenge of finding talent changes with the development of the project. Early stage entities rely on networks and informal connections. The needs and processes to fulfill them becomes more structured as they progress.

No matter how formal or structured the process is, a useful stating point is to articulate a job description. This document is important in that it:

• Defines the basic job scope and responsibilities. It becomes an implied contract for tasks to be accomplished and its deliverables. It also defines boundaries that allow others to see how they can interact.
• Becomes a measuring point for reviews and performance measurements.
• Delineates reporting responsibilities, both upward and downward.
• Assists others such as recruiters and outside personnel to help find and secure needed talent.
• Is pliable enough to be reviewed and changed as the projects progress.
• Can be employed throughout the organization from the board members to hourly workers.
• Defines the experience and skillsets needed to succeed. Sets up training metrics.
• Allows comparison to industry trends (surveys) and other comparable metrics.
• Becomes a “straw man” in early stage projects to capture position information of unfilled slots. This is particularly useful in writing and executing business plans where the future needs are articulated, but not filled.

There is very little, if any, downside to the discipline of job descriptions.

Acquiring talent is one side of the equation; motivating individuals to perform in concert to the needs of the project or organization becomes a major threshold for success. Much has been written about teams and teamwork. There is a quote credited to Helen Keller (citation unknown) that is a favorite of mine. It reads, “Alone we can do little; together we can do so much.”

Some of the elements of teams that apply to commercialization are:

• They offer an opportunity for collaboration that can bring the synergy of different disciplines to bear on the outcome of the project. This allows progress without the burden of using parent organizations.
• They allow change and transitions to occur because the various collaborative players own a “stake” in the outcome.
• They can incorporate unique performance metrics adapted for the specific tasks.
• Although they offer a new chance for conflicts that must be managed, they also allow potential barriers to be disrupted earlier.
• They offer new opportunities for leadership skills development among the participants.
• The management details are smaller than the parent organization’s, which offers a granularity of performance management that can flag issues earlier.
• New channels of communication between existing groups can be developed in teams.
• They allow individuals to assert responsibilities not offered in the existing organization.

Balanced Metrics

It’s not easy to sketch out various organizational schemes. You must define how the operation’s tasks are to be integrated into the parent organization. This isn’t just operational issues of space and the organizational capacity to manage them (Human Resources, Maintenance, and Benefits), but also addresses the issues of integrating them into the parent organization.

One of the most prevalent measuring tools comes from the use of operational budgets. They are derived from the overall planning effort cited in earlier chapters. Here the flow of expenses and capital investments is usually presented in monthly segments. This flow delineates personnel, equipment, services, and even outside resources such as design firms and consultants. If it’s done well, the categories of the budget align to the parent organization’s accounting system so that they can be integrated into the overall corporate metrics.

Can innovation and creative processes be measured? The simple answer is “of course” in that indirect metrics of milestones, productivity, goals, and expenditure can be monitored and analyzed. Although they are indirect, they offer a measurement tool for perceived progress. Without at least this level, you’re flirting with chaos and financial overrun. Metrics also allow for the comparison of one project’s approach to others. Simple percentage comparisons are usually sufficient for monitoring progress. This type of evaluation also allows for contingencies when unplanned roadblocks occur. Budget allocations can show how resources can be shifted to meet these unexpected needs.

Creating the Environment

Organizational dynamics certainly embrace structure, finance, metrics, and the art of finding, motivating and retaining talent. From outside the team, there is a much more subtle and controlling force in how the groups operate. Whether in large or startup entities the couture that controls the workplace and eventually embraces the customer is paramount. Beyond the excitement of starting a project, there remains a major challenge of sustaining an innovative or entrepreneurial mindset in the day-to-day activities.

There are many tactical elements to sustaining that style. Open meetings, sharing corporate progress and issues, rewarding risk taking, and encouraging innovative players are just a few. Even Friday wine parties (Silicon Valley) are known to work. Company benefits and financial incentives like part-time tuition fall into this category. Strong leadership styles and employee-centric working models also fall into this area. I suspect that most of the successful models are a mixture of tactics and art.

Summing Up

The choice and implementation of the organizational team model clearly affect the outcome of a project or a new venture. Like the artist’s work, it is constantly under scrutiny and receives endless tinkering. Attention to the performance goals, action plan, and measuring metrics of progress are the livelihood of the managers of this activity. Each element contributes to the overall success.

Success can certainly be measured. In the next chapter, you look at how the financial decision process operates. Large organizational models and startups are compared. In addition, the role of outside capital decisions is examined, both from early stage venture backed projects to the realm of investment banking and public market decision making. Finally, the role of non-dilutive funding such as government and foundation grants is put into perspective. That will allow us to see their impact on the probability of success in technology commercialization projects.

___________________

¹Reinier Kraakman, John Armour, Paul Davies Krashum, et al., Oxford University Press, 2004.

²Journal of Product Innovation Management 28 (2011): 3–16.