CHAPTER 6

Writing Skills

Chapter Objectives

This chapter aims to familiarize students with some important forms of writing like paragraph writing, précis writing, instructional writing, summary and abstract writing. It also discusses the factors critical for good writing like the processes of writing and sequencing. Further, it brings into focus the important skill of note-making.

THE BASICS OF WRITING

We can add a few more factors to those mentioned by Quintilian. All these factors contribute to clear, fluent, and effective writing:

• Purpose: The reason for writing;
• Audience: The readers;
• Writer's Process: Getting ideas, getting started, writing drafts, revising;
• Mechanics: Handwriting, spelling, punctuation;
• Grammar: Rules of verb, agreement, articles;
• Syntax: Sentence structure, stylistic choice;
• Content: Relevance, clarity, originality, logic;
• Word choice: Vocabulary, idioms, tone;
• Organization: Paragraphs, topic and support sentences, cohesion and unity;

Writing can also be seen as the skill of communicating with either the ‘now’ audience/readers or ‘later’ audience/readers through the medium of paper/ screen/display. The effectiveness of writing depends among other factors, primarily on clarity of expression. In addition to clarity of expression, an effective writer also needs to have a good style that is appropriate and unambiguous.

The act of writing anything involves an effort to express ideas through the constant use of eyes. The hand and the brain and comprises a unique way of reinforcing learning and discovering new ways of expressing ideas. Reading is a skill that is very closely related to writing. Every act of writing is seen as an act of reading, and reading itself is a kind of writing. From one perspective, writing is the way in which we evaluate or express reading skill, and reading is the way in which we evaluate writing skill. The close relationship between writing and thinking on one hand and writing and reading on the other makes writing a valuable part of any language learning or skill-acquiring programme.

All effective writers avoid ambiguity. This can be ensured by being careful about the word order. Ambiguous sentences can be entertaining in their double meaning, but can mar precision in writing.

THE PROCESS OF WRITING

Any kind of writing can be seen as a process in three stages:

• Pre-writing
• Writing
• Post-writing.

But it should also be borne in mind that writing is too complicated a process to be broken up into three neat stages. It is and has to be full of overlaps. It is recursive–often starts, stops, loops backward and goes forward again. These stages can be seen as rough break points that are to be kept as guiding principles while writing.

Pre-Writing

This is probably the most crucial stage in the writing process. It involves forming a thesis statement and an outline. At this point, one has to formulate a clear idea about the purpose of writing, the audience and generate ideas about the kind of information one wants to pass on.

Some of the commonly used techniques during this stage are brainstorming, clustering and clubbing of ideas. Techniques like mind-mapping or using any other way of branching and organizing would help in sequencing and forming idea clusters in the mind. If you have been able to arrive at rough headings and subheadings, it is important to check out the following points:

• Do each of your headings describe one of your central ideas?
• Have you been able to add on further sub-points to each? Can you have one paragraph on each of the main headings?
• Are all the headings free of overlapping ideas?
• Are the headings logically related to one another?

Writing

The next stage is the actual process of writing, elaborating and filling out the frame prepared in the prewriting stage. The important concerns here are, dividing the writing into the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.

In the introduction, it is important to:

• introduce the subject
• set the direction of the writing
• capture the imagination of the reader

In the body of the writing, one has to pay attention to the sequencing of ideas, the logicality and coherence of presentation and a strong sense of direction. The body of the writing should contain at least one fully developed paragraph about each of the central ideas listed out in the prewriting phase. They could follow any logic in the order of presentation (either from the least important to the most important or any other).

In presenting the main and the sub-points, you could either proceed from the general to the specific or from the specific to the general. Very often people prefer moving from the general to the specific. It is called the funnel method of presentation.

The conclusion is largely responsible for giving the reader a sense of completion, a feel of tying up the loose ends. It could be a summary or an evaluation of the ideas previously presented. A conclusion is largely responsible for reinforcing and concretizing the argument of the writing. It also makes clear the writer's position on the issue being discussed. One has to be careful therefore about the way it is worded.

Post-Writing

This is the third and last step in the writing process. It includes the task of rereading the paper to see what revisions might need to be made. This often means more than just proofreading for minor mechanical errors, such as spelling and punctuation. A good writer will always be critical of his/her writing at this stage. Here, it is important to:

• be objective
• keep the purpose of writing that you had developed in the prewriting stage.
• keep in mind the audience and their expectations.

Along with these factors, you have to focus on the appropriate formatting paying attention to the space, margin and font. Finally, before submitting, it is important to once again check for spelling, punctuation, omissions or any other careless mistakes.

PARAGRAPH

A paragraph can be seen as the basic unit of connected writing. A good paragraph is one that carries a single idea and where the argument or the idea itself is organized logically and presented coherently. The topic sentence, which is the main sentence of a paragraph, conveys the central theme or idea. It is generally written in the beginning of a paragraph. However, it can be written either in the middle or at the end of the paragraph. If mentioned at the beginning, the sentences after the topic sentence are explications or extensions of it. But if it comes at the end, the sentences generally lead the reader to the topic sentence. Sometimes a topic sentence can be implicit within a paragraph when it is not written. In such a situation, the other sentences of a paragraph should lend support and substantiate the topic sentence.

One of the skills needed to develop or organize a paragraph well is appropriate sequencing. While writing a paragraph, one has to keep in mind the logical ordering of ideas.

Sequencing

Sequencing is the skill of organizing a textual material, deciding the priority, the focus of the different points and consequently the order in which they should be presented in a paragraph. Sequencing is also about linking up ideas and concepts and using the correct linkers to show the relationship they have with one another. Linkers are essentially thought connectives. Some of the widely used linkers are as follows:

In addition to; further; moreover; apart from; although; however; though; in spite of; whereas; on the contrary; for example; for instance; thus; such; in addition; furthermore; then; in this case; indeed; surely; above all; certainly; in the same way; on the other hand; in contrast; whereas; instead; similarly; more importantly; additionally; in the same way, because, especially, then, of course, fortunately, before, after, besides, well, in other words, even; but etc.

In addition to using linkers, sequencing also involves using the appropriate words and making the writing brief, crisp and clear. Attempt the following activities.

INSTRUCTIONAL WRITING

Instructional writing is the ability to write out instructions precisely and unambiguously to prospective readers. It generally has an overt or a covert style of putting across certain do's and don'ts in a given context. The most common form of instructional writing is found in different kinds of user manuals. The context can be commercial, academic, personal, social, investigative or any other in nature. In a world of increasing gadgets and equipment, instructional writing has become an essential skill to be learnt. One has to have written instructions to be able to use a camera, to prepare income tax returns, to program VCRs and to run machines. To write a piece of instruction, one has to do the following:

1. Define the goal clearly.
2. Determine the audience.
3. Decide the most acceptable sequence.
4. Use visual aids where necessary.

It is important for instructional writing to first define the end result. One has to be clear whether one wants the writing to help people understand the process involved in a gadget or simply to operate the gadget.

Determining the audience is equally important in instructional writing. One has to estimate the awareness level of the audience in the field, determine the kind of exposure they have had and then determine the kind of instructions to be given.

To determine the right sequence of presentation in instructional writing, one has to often foresee difficulties. One has to be able to think what can go wrong or where one can be confused at each step, give the solutions and accordingly determine the steps. The following is an example of the kind of instructions that are given to a beginner and to an experienced user respectively.

Logging instructions

Beginner:

1. Flip on the power switch. It is on the back of the terminal to the left.
2. Press the return key until ENTER CLASS appears on the screen.

Note that the computer has a 20-second time limit on the 6 instructions that follow. So you must move right along or you will have to restart.

• 3. Type in “3”. The VAX is a class 3 option.
• 4. Press the return key. The computer will respond with “GO”.
• 5. The Computer Will then Display “User Name” On the Screen.
• 6. Type in “SHREE GANESH”. This is the training session user name.
• 7. Press the return key. “Password” will be displayed.
• 8. Press “ENTER” To Begin your work.

Advanced user:

Turn the terminal on.

Type return.

Type 3, Return.

Type, Return, Return.

Insert user name, Return.

Password.

Adapted from Technical Report Writing Today by Steven E. Pauley and David G. Riordan.

PRÉCIS WRITING

The word précis is adopted from French and signifies a ‘summary’ or an ‘epitome’. Writing a summary of a text, whether it is a speech, a biography or any other, is a difficult and useful skill, demanding concentration, comprehension and condensation. After understanding a passage, we have to compress it. In compressing a passage, selection, rejection and generalization are often useful. The general practice has been to prepare the summary of a paragraph in about a third of the original. However, there is no fixed rule about this. You may also give a title to the summary.

Look at the following example:

An old man came to Hyderabad for the first time. His daughter was employed in Hyderabad but she could not come to the station to receive him and take him home. The old man came out of the station. He spoke to a taxi driver, negotiated the charges and gave him the address. He got into the taxi; the taxi started but it moved at such incredible speed and in such an erratic manner that it almost collided with a van; after sometime, it was about to knock down a traffic personnel and collide with a lorry. The old man got scared. ‘Take care’, he cried out, terrified. Patting on the driver's shoulder to attract his attention, he said “you are frightening me by this manner of driving. I am afraid I will be in the hospital instead of my daughter's house. I want you to be more careful. This is the first time I am going by car. I am very nervous”. The driver, who was sweating by now said, ‘I understand your nervousness; I sympathize with you. This is the first time I am driving a car!’ (About 190 words)

Précis:

Their first attempt

A taxi hired by an old man who arrived in Hyderabad was traveling erratically at great speed. It narrowly missed hitting other vehicles. The terrified passenger requested the driver to slow down. He even said that it was the first time he was traveling by car. The driver expressed his sympathy and added that it was the first time he was driving a car! (64 words)

As far as possible, it is preferable to use your own words in making a summary. However, in the case of any important expression, the original words may be retained.

ABSTRACT WRITING

An abstract is a brief summary of the contents of a research report, article or presentation. Generally, the title and author(s) name are added to give it context. Traditionally, the abstract covers an Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion (IMRD format) – in the shortest amount of space possible.

1. The Introduction typically describes the problem and its importance. It should include:
   1. Appropriate problem description.
   2. The specific questions you are going to answer.
   3. The purpose, motivation or relevance of your problem.
   4. What you hope to learn or achieve from your research.
2. The Methods are the framework, procedures, and tools for investigating your defined problem. As part of this, you need to:
   1. Summarize all the important information related to strategy and methodology
   2. Describe the analytical techniques used.
3. The Results (or outcomes) of your work should be concisely and objectively listed in a logical sequence. Here you should mention if:
   1. any comparisons are being made to existing ideas.
   2. you have developed software or hardware.
   3. you did a benchmark study and if it was appropriate to do so.
4. The discussion (or conclusion) offers an evaluation and interpretation of your findings and makes some suggestions about solutions to your stated problem. Can you make generalizations or projections of new insights into your scientific field? Are there any future improvements to consider?

The art of writing a good scientific abstract is to:

• Address the four key elements of the IMRD format using two or three well-constructed sentences per element.
• Use simple statements
• Use precise language
• Use well-known abbreviations to keep it short and simple

In today's world of fast business transactions, the skill to write precisely yet briefly has become a necessity. For effective writing, you have to avoid unnecessary details, roundabout expressions and come to the point directly. Look at the following excerpt from a letter:

We can put the same information in the following form.

Sentences can be abridged sometimes by substituting words or phrases or removing ornamental and superfluous expressions. Read the following illustrations.

1. 1. His conduct was such that it could not be excused.
   2. His conduct was inexcusable.
2. 1. When I began to write my first report it occurred to me that one method by which I could make it more effective would be to include a series of diagrams.
   2. While writing my first report, I realized that including diagrams will make it effective.

Difference Between an Abstract and a Summary

Most reports consist of a synopsis, which is called an abstract or sometimes a summary. An abstract tells what the report is about and gives the extent of coverage. A summary gives the substance of the report without any illustrations and explanations. An abstract will give the method of analysis, the significant findings, the important conclusions and the major recommendations. The abstract is generally about two to three per cent of the original while the summary is about five to ten percent. In order to facilitate quick and easy comprehension for the reader, both these elements should be self-sufficient and intelligible, without reference to any other part of the report.

NOTE-TAKING

Note-taking is a skill widely used by students and teachers alike. It is primarily a way to filter and jot down the important ideas or comments. One can even make notes while going through an experiment. This would involve commenting on the problem, the outcome and probable solutions. Notes have to be taken in the classroom, while preparing for the examination and also while referring to reference material. Notes are also taken to jot down important points in a lecture, or to document an important discussion or presentation. These points can be put in a linear form where the main points and the sub-points are aligned differently to make the difference clear, or they can be put in the form of a flow chart where the sub points emerge from the nodal points. Finally, they can be even put in the circular form of a mind map where they branch out from the centre to the margins. (This form has been discussed in detail in the next chapter under mind-mapping.)

Given below are a few sentences and their main points. How can they be reduced to the form of notes?

1. 1. Artificial intelligence is one of the most useful modules we have in this course.
   2. Art intll—very useful module.
2. 1. It is important to get into a pollution-free mode of production. Otherwise, the price we have to pay will be very heavy. Life under sea and on earth might even perish
   2. Pollution-free environment is a must. If not, life might end
      • On land
      • In the sea

An important part of note-taking is identifying the main and the sub-points in a piece of writing. It helps you organize the ideas, and comprehend the meanings as related, yet distinct chunks.

Look at the following example:

Recession

Economic growth occurs in a country when all the factories and offices are working and the national income is going up. History shows that in most countries economic growth is not constant. Even the advanced countries like the United States and Britain go into recession on a regular basis. Unemployment increases, factories and offices are closed down, and the economy produces fewer goods than it could if its resources were being fully utilized.

Sometimes the recession is particularly bad and develops into a depression. In the great depression of the 1930s, the national income of the United States fell from $95.2 billion in 1929 to $48.6 billion in 1933. One in four workers became unemployed. Reduced imports dragged a few other countries like Britain, Germany and Australia into depression too. Most people in a country are likely to suffer from the effects of a depression. Wages may fall, cutting the spending power of workers lucky enough to keep their jobs. The unemployed and their families are thrown into poverty. They have to rely on state benefits and charity for support.

One can make notes of this piece of writing in the following way:

1. Signs of economic growth
   • Working factories/offices
   • National income is up
2. Recession in advanced countries, a regular phenomenon
   • USA in 1930's
   • One in four became jobless
   • National income fell from $95.2 billion to $48.6 billion
   • Reduced imports that affected other countries too.
3. Impact of recession
   • Wages fall, cutting spending power.
   • Unemployment increases
   • Families, dependent on state support.

SUMMARY

• Correctness, precision, and elegance are very important for good writing.
• Careful word order is important for clear as well as unambiguous writing.
• Pre-writing, writing and post writing are the three important processes involved in any good writing.
• Paragraph along with sentence is the basic unit of writing. Proper sequencing is very important here.
• Précis writing is generally done to reduce the given paragraph to one third of its length.
• For summary writing, it is important to condense and also arrive at the most important points.
• Note-taking is a means to filter out important points and organize the paragraph into main and sub-points.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the factors that contribute to clear, fluent, and effective writing?
2. What constitutes the content of any writing?
3. How do we organize our ideas while writing a paragraph?
4. What is a précis and what are the three main features of a good précis?
5. Discuss the notion of sequencing.
6. What do you understand by the term instructional writing?
7. What is the difference between abstract writing and summary writing?
8. What are the important features of note-making?