CHAPTER 1

Tenses, the Active and the Passive Voice, and Reported Speech

Chapter Objectives

This section aims to give the students the basics of grammar. It deals with tenses, the active and the passive voice and the reported speech. It also deals with the main and auxiliary verbs, the finite and the non-finite verbs and the way they are used in the different tense forms. The chapter deals with grammar within very limited space. Hence, only some of the very important concepts have been dealt with.

TENSES

The verb The verb is one of the most important elements of English grammar. It can be described as a word that expresses action in a sentence. Look at the following expressions.

1. You wait patiently.
2. You wait.
3. Wait patiently.
4. Wait.
5. patiently
6. you

The first four here can be seen as complete expressions. They can stand alone. The last two, however, cannot be independent. The main difference between them, if you see closely, is that the last two do not have a verb. It is the verb that forms the nucleus of a sentence. Hence, it makes the sentence meaningful. We can have a sentence with only the verb but there cannot be any sentence without a verb.

The Main and the Auxiliary Verbs

Now, look at the following sentences:

1. Children play happily.
2. We can do the work in three days.
3. The workers have been working overtime.
4. The typed papers had been lying on the table for months when the enquiry was made.

In the first sentence, the verb is “play”. It expresses the action in the sentence. But in the second sentence, the verbs are, “can” and “do”. And in the third sentence, “have”, “been” and “working' are verbs. These verbs, however, are not similar. They are either the main or the auxiliary verb. Generally, words like “play”, “do” or “work” are the main verbs. And words like “can”, “have”, “been”, etc, are the auxiliary verbs. It could be said that words that express the action in a sentence are the main verbs while verbs that help determine the time frame are auxiliary verbs. The following are the categories of words we use as auxiliaries.

“Modal” forms -- can, could; will, would; shall, should; may, might; must, ought to.

“Be” forms – is, am, was were, are.

“Have” forms—have, has, had.

Now, change the tense of the sentences given above:

1. Children played happily.
2. We could do the work in three days.
3. The workers had been working overtime.
4. The typed papers have been lying on the table.

We find in each of the cases that one of the words identified as the auxiliary verb changes the form in case of a tense change. But in case there is no auxiliary verb, the main verb changes its form (as in the case of the first sentence).

A sentence will always have only one main verb. But it can have one or more than one auxiliary verbs.

Look at some more sentences:

1. Man is mortal.
2. This city has an efficient government.
3. All children are creative by nature.
4. Dinosaurs were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian.

These sentences have the words we have earlier identified as auxiliary verbs. But as you see, they are the only verbs in the sentence. Hence, they are the main verbs in these sentences. One proof of this is that, in case of a change of tense too, these forms will undergo change.

The Finite and the Non-Finite Verb

One more distinction you should keep in mind is that between the finite and the non-finite verb. The verb which carries the tense in a sentence is always the Finite verb and the others are the non-finite verbs. Look at the following pairs of sentences —

1. the grass on the other side is always green.
2. the grass on the other side was always green.
3. the grass on the other side has been always green.
4. the grass on the other side had been always green until we crossed over and saw it for ourselves.

We find that in the first pair, there is only one verb and naturally, it caries the tense. But in the second pair, there is more than one verb, and when there is an auxiliary verb, it is the auxiliary that caries the tense. In a sentence, the verb which carries the tense is called the finite verb and the others are called the non-finite verbs. If a sentence has only one verb, the main verb is the finite verb. But if there is more than one verb, the verb carrying the tense is the finite and the rest are non-finite verbs. It is necessary for you to be clear about these two types of verbs to master the tenses that follow in the later sections.

The Forms of the Verb

Look at the following sentences:

1. We walk to the ground every morning.
2. The bus generally arrives on time.
3. The children played the whole day yesterday.
4. The executive members are planning for a meeting next month.
5. The students have seen the exhibition.

These five sentences use the five forms of the verbs that are used in different ways to express the tenses. The five forms are the following:

1. The base form: walk
2. The –es form (the third person singular): arrives
3. The past tense form: played
4. The be –ing form: planning
5. The have –en form: seen

These are the five forms of the verb in English. It is important to note that these are the different grammatical forms of tenses. The tenses in English do not necessarily coordinate with the times they express. Hence, it is important to see how these different forms express the different time sequences. Given in the units that follow, are descriptions of the tense form and the time sequences they express.

The Simple Present Form

The simple present tense, we have seen, uses two forms—the third person singular –es form and the base form. We use it to indicate things that happen all the time and to show universal truths:

1. The earth goes around the sun.
2. The moon reflects the rays of the sun.
3. The flight takes off at 5 pm.
4. Continuous working leaves one tired and exhausted.

Sometimes we also use the simple present to show how often we do things or how often things happen.

1. Rohit sometimes plays cricket.
2. How often do you go to the dentist?
3. We usually take the road to the right of the park.

We use do/does to express questions and negative sentences:

1. Do you believe in Darwin's theory of evolution?
2. Rice doesn't grow in cold countries.
3. We don't often do things according to others wishes. Do we?

The Present Continuous Form

The present continuous uses the “be (is, am, are)—ing” form of the verb. It is used to denote action continuing the present at the moment of speaking.

1. Talk slowly. The patients are resting.
2. We have to go soon. Sheela is leaving.
3. Take an umbrella with you. It is raining.
4. Be careful. The vehicle is still moving.

It is also used to show action around the time of speaking.

1. You are working a lot today. Do you have a deadline to meet?
2. The population is rising very fast.
3. Your English is getting better. Keep trying.

We find in these sentences, that the combination of the simple present and present continuous is also used to show the difference between the permanent and the temporary. There are some verbs in English that can be used in the simple present form only, even when they denote the present continuous action. For example, we can say

1. “I don't understand you.” Not, “I am not understanding you.”
2. “I believe you.” Not, “I am believing you.”

The following are some of the verbs that cannot be used in the present continuous form.

Simple Past

The simple present generally uses the “–ed” to form the past tense. However, there are many important verbs that are irregular.

Questions and negatives in the simple present use did/didn't.

1. We walked home.
2. Did you walk home?
3. They didn't walk home.

Past Continuous

Like the present continuous, the past continuous too uses the “be—ing” form. But while the former uses the “is”, “am”, “are” (the present tense forms), the latter uses “was” and “were”(the past tense forms).

The past continuous is used to show action that continued for some time in the past. look at the following sentences.

1. The child is tired. She was playing all day.
2. I have seen the plane. It was flying very low in this area.

The past continuous is also used to show that some action was continuing when something else happened and intervened.

1. I was working when the door bell rang.
2. We were walking when the car hit us from behind.
3. Mohan was cooking when I reached home.

Present Perfect

The present perfect tense uses the “have –en” form, or the past participle form with “have/has”. It is used to show action that happened in the past but is connected with the present.

1. I have lost my papers. (I am still searching for them.)
2. Sonia has gone to Delhi. (She is still in Delhi.)
3. The team has arrived. (They are still here.)

Contrast this with the simple past tense.

1. I lost my papers. (But I managed the situation somehow)
2. Sonia went to Delhi. (She has come back last week)
3. The team arrived. (But they had to leave for security reasons)

We see in these sentences that both the present perfect and the simple past show past action. But while present perfect suggests that the impact of the past action is still there in the present, the simple past might simply focus on the fact that the action is over.

The present perfect is also used to show that you have not done something during a period of time which continues up to the present.

1. I have never been to the 3D theatre.
2. I haven't smoked for a year now.
3. I haven't acted in a play since last September.
4. Suman hasn't written to me for a year now.

Present perfect is used with expressions like this morning/this evening/today/this week/this term etc., especially when the period is not finished at the time of speaking.

1. I have written ten pages since today morning.
2. We have seen five accidents this week.
3. Sheela has taken twelve classes a week this term.
4. We have driven thirty kilometers this evening.

The present perfect is also called the tense of indefinite time. It cannot be used with the mention of specific time. So when a specific time has to be mentioned, we use the simple past instead. Look at the following examples:

Present Perfect Continuous

The present perfect continuous uses both the “have –en” and the “be—ing” form. It is generally used to show action that began and has continued for some time in the past. These are actions that might have just got over or still continuing at the point of speaking. Look at some more examples:

1. You are out of breath. Have you been running?
2. I have been talking to your teachers about your problem. They feel that.............
3. The roads are flooded. It has been raining for four hours now.
4. I have been watching the TV since five O'clock.
5. Aren't you tired? You have been talking the whole evening.

Now, look at the following sentences:

1. Ranga's clothes are soiled. He has been painting the ceiling.
2. The ceiling was white. Ranga has painted it.

In the first sentence here, the emphasis is on the action itself. But the second emphasizes on the completion of action.

1. There are dark circles around Rekha's eyes. She has been working hard to complete the book.
2. Rekha has finished working on the book.

In the first sentence here, the emphasis is on the act of Rekha's working on the book. But in the second, the emphasis is on the completion of the action.

The present perfect continuous, thus, is used when we want to stress on the act of doing something. And only the present perfect is used when it is necessary to highlight the completion of the action.

Past Perfect

The past perfect tense uses the past form (had) of the “have—en” form to make sentences. In the first sentence here, we find two time sequences. One is “arriving at the party”, and the other is “leaving of the guests”. If “arriving at the party” is a past, the “leaving of the guests” happens before this past. The past of the past here uses the past perfect tense. Hence, it is the past of the past. The same is found in the other two sentences too. In all these sentences, there are two time sequences. One—the past, and the other—the past of the past. The past perfect is used to show the past of the past.

Look at some more examples:

1. 1. Was Sheela there when you reached the spot?
   2. No. she had already left.
2. 1. Could the police catch the thief yesterday?
   2. They tried their best but thief had left much before they could arrive.

The Future

In English, the future tense does not have a specific form. It is generally expressed by using a combination of various other tenses. Some of the ways of expressing the future time are as follows:

By using the present continuous form with a future word.

1. I am going to meet the principal tomorrow.
2. The plane is leaving in an hour's time.
3. We have to increase the speed. The shops are closing in an hour.

By using the modals to show possibility or probability in future.

1. It might rain in the evening.
2. The train should reach in two hours time.
3. I shall write the final exams this year.

THE PASSIVE

In the passive form of the sentence, it is the object of the action that is highlighted rather than the agent or instrument of action.

In the passive form, we use the correct form of the “be” verb (is/are/were/was) along with the past participle form of the verb in the sentence. So we have forms like:

1. the work was done …
2. the room was cleaned …
3. the house was built …
4. the infiltrators were seen …

Apart from the “be” form, the passive also uses the “have / has been...........” form. We have forms like:

1. My bicycle must have been stolen.
2. All the trees in the area have been cut.
3. The monitor has been repaired.
4. The whole class has been punished.

Compare this to the active forms of the sentences:

1. The boys next door must have stolen my bicycle.
2. The illegal traders have cut all the trees in the area.
3. The new service engineer has repaired the monitor.
4. The Principal has punished the whole class.

As mentioned before, the active forms of the sentences focus on the agent of the action— who has done the action is as important or sometimes more important than the action. In the passive however, the action, not the doer, becomes important.

Forms of the Passive

The following are some of the commonly used forms of the passive:

Simple present:

1. The rooms are cleaned everyday
2. People are injured in accidents everyday.

   (Everyday, routine action.)

Simple past:

1. The documents were destroyed.
2. Patients were neglected.

   (Action in the past.)

Present continuous:

1. Shops are being closed down everyday.
2. Problems in policy implementation are being discussed in detail.

   (Action taking place at the time or around the time of speaking.)

Past continuous:

1. We suddenly realized that we were being followed.
2. Different ways of lessening the border tension were being discussed when the war broke out.

   (Action that continued for some time in the past.)

Present perfect:

1. All of us have been invited to the party
2. Shyama has been elected president.

   (Action was in the past time but it is still valid at the time of speaking.)

Past perfect:

1. The rooms looked much better. They had been cleaned.
2. We simply could not voice our protest. We had been asked to keep quiet.

   (Action that took place before the past action mentioned in the sentences.)

REPORTED SPEECH

Direct speech is the actual speech of a speaker reported without any intervention. This is indicated by putting the actual words within inverted commas, and separating it from the main sentence with a comma. (see the sentences given above in the box). The reporting of this direct speech to someone else needs a slight alteration of structure. This is called Reported speech.

Look at some more examples:

• Charlie said, “I am thinking of going to Canada.”
• Charlie said that he was thinking of going to Canada.

• Raghu said, “I have been playing a lot of tennis.”
• Raghu said that he has been playing a lot of tennis.

• Sheela said, “I don't know what Rajiv is doing.”
• Sheela said that she did not know what Rajiv was doing.

Reported speech, we find here, introduces a “that…” form and changes the tense of the reported clause. But this does not always happen. Different tense forms make their reported speeches differently. Remember that in a sentence where a speech is being quoted or reported, there are two clauses with two finite verbs – one is the main verb that is linked with who did the saying and the other talks of what was said. Given below are some verb forms and the way they are transformed into the reported speech.

• When the main verb of the sentence is in the present, the present perfect or the future tense, there is no change in the reported statement.
  • “I haven't done my homework,” she says.
  • She says that she hasn't done her homework.
  • “The plane will land in fifteen minutes,” the pilot has just announced.
  • The pilot has just announced that the plane will land in fifteen minutes.
• When the main verb of the sentence is in the past tense, the verb of the reported speech also is changed into the past. Look at the following sentences:
  1. “The washing machine is broken,” he said

     He said that the washing machine was broken.

  2. “We have never been to Berlin,” they said.

     They said that they had never been to Berlin.

  3. “I am not feeling very well,” Shilpa said.

     Shilpa said that she was not feeling very well.

  4. “It was raining very heavily yesterday,” she said.

     She said that it had rained very heavily that day before.

While changing the direct speech into the reported form the following changes too are necessary.

shall	should
will	would
must	had to
can	could
tomorrow	the next day
yesterday	the day before
today	that day
here	there
this/that	the

Reported speech and “wh” words

When sentences have a “wh” word, they change their word order when changed into reported speech. Look at the following sentences:

• “What's the time?” she asked.
• She asked what time it was.

• “How's your mother”? He asked.
• He asked me how my mother was.

Reported speech and commands

Reported commands also undergo change. They can use a number of verbs like “order”, “command”, “warn’, “instruct’.

• “Don't get worried”, she told.
• She requested them not to get worried.

• “Finish the job tonight please”, my boss told me.
• My boss requested me to finish the job tonight.

SUMMARY

• Tenses express the action in a sentence.
• The main verb gives the content of the action, while the auxiliary verb gives the appropriate framework of the action.
• The finite verb carries the tense in a sentence.
• The “be” verb has five forms—is, am, are, were, was.
• The simple present and the present continuous when juxtaposed, show the difference between the permanent and temporary action.
• The present perfect does not express definite time.
• The passive voice highlights the action or the process involved, whereas the active voice emphasizes on the agent or instrument of action.
• Passive voice is used when the doer is either unknown, unimportant or obvious.
• Reported speech is used when there is the need to report what has been stated indirectly.
• The tense of the reported speech undergoes change only when the main verb is in the past tense.