APPENDIX A
Vocabulary Expansion
THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY
Though symbols, signs, and gestures are used significantly for human communication, it is basically through words that we think and convey our feelings, ideas, and needs to others. Our understanding of the thoughts of others is largely done through words. This ability to understand and communicate depends to a large extent on the size and accuracy of a person's vocabulary, i.e., the total number of words known and used by the person. In order to speak and write effectively, it is necessary to acquire sufficient and diversified vocabulary. This can be done through extensive listening and reading but this process requires much time before it produces appreciable results. Hence a systematic study is needed for enlarging and enriching one's vocabulary. In this appendix, you can study some aspects relating to English vocabulary, which would enable you to express yourself effectively and precisely in speech and writing.
English Vocabulary
Of all the languages in the world, English has the richest and most extensive vocabulary – nearly a million words. Half of them are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary; the other half remain uncatalogued. In comparison, the French language has about 1,00,000 words and German about 1,85,000. No one can ever hope to learn the million words in English nor is it necessary to learn them all as most of them are superfluous to the normal requirements of an ordinary person. The size of a person's vocabulary is determined by the nature of his work and interests. Thus, a scholar will need more vocabulary than a manual worker. It is desirable, however, for everyone to have a vocabulary in the range of 20,000 to 30,000 words, consisting of both receptive and productive categories.
Recognition and Production Vocabulary
All persons have two categories of vocabulary-words they can recognize while listening and reading and words which they can actually use in speaking and writing. The first category is known as Recognition or Passive Vocabulary and the second as Production or Active Vocabulary.
A person's recognition vocabulary is words he she can more or less understand when he/she hears them, or reads them without being sure of their meaning. Production vocabulary is words a person can actually use in speech and writing without doubt or hesitation. The two, however, will not remain constant. Words will move from recognition to production vocabulary when their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammar and usage are mastered and when they are used in speech and writing. If neglected, they would be forgotten or remain passive.
Content and Function Words
Words in English can also be classified into two groups-content and function words. Content words are those that express meanings like names (nouns), actions (full verbs) and qualities (adjectives and adverbs). They are unlimited in number, which goes on increasing with time.
In contrast, function words are almost empty of meaning individually. They are grammatical or structural Words like articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns and auxiliary verbs which are required for grammatical construction of phrases, clauses and sentences. They are limited in number (about 160).
Confusibles
There are many English words that are somewhat similar in sound and/or spelling though they are different in meaning. This often leads to confusion and misuse. So, whenever you are in doubt, you must look them up in a dictionary to be quite clear about the differences in their use. Words which often cause confusion can be divided into the following groups.
a. Homophones
Words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings, are a common source of confusion. Below is listed a selection of such pairs of words.
b. Homographs
Homographs are words that have the same written form but different pronunciations and meanings.
Examples: lead—lead; tear—tear
c. Homonyms
Homonyms are words that are both spelt and pronounced alike but have different meaning.
Example: bear, to bear
d. Confusing pairs of words
e. Collocation
Collocation deals with “what usually goes with what” i.e., an arrangement of words which sounds very acceptable. Faulty collocation leads to comic effect, as for example, if someone were to say, “I want a cup of powerful coffee” instead of “I want a cup of strong coffee”. In English, the words “strong” and “coffee” collocate, i.e., usually go together. Similarly, it would be wrong, to say, “I don't want to speak a lie” instead of “I don't want to tell a lie” or “He is a far relation of mine” instead of “He's a distant relation of mine”. You can find out about correct collocation of English words by referring to any ELT dictionary.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are idiomatic verb forms made up of a verb and an adverb particle i.e., they are made up of two words or sometimes three words. These verb-adverb combinations have meanings which cannot be built up from the meanings of the individual verb and adverb. Phrasal verbs thus are verbs plus prepositions or adverb complexes that acquire idiomatic meanings. A new verb with a different meaning is produced by a phrasal verb. For example, the expression go with when used as a phrasal verb means to take the same view as and not accompany.
Sometimes the meaning of a phrasal verb can be similar to the original verb as in the following. Example: The train slowed down very much before reaching the station (speed has become slow).
Look at other examples
- I get up at 6 in the morning. (wake up)
- The plane took off at 12 in the afternoon. (lifted itself in air)
- We shall pick you up outside the bus stand. (receive someone with a vehicle to go back)
- Arun wants to give up smoking at last. (stop a long habit or practice)
- I can't go with you on that point. (agree with)
Phrasal verbs can also have more than one idiomatic meaning:
Example:
Sambar goes with (suits) idlis very well.
English is very rich in phrasal verb usage. Phrasal verbs can be learnt easily with the help of a dictionary and also by thinking out situations in which they can be used.
Examples:
Who's looking after (taking care of) the children?
He looks down on (disdains) all his relatives.
He looked through (examined) the accounts for her.
Things are looking up (improving).
He always looked up to (respected) her.
Look at the following list of some important phrasal verbs:
answer for |
be responsible for |
bank upon |
depend on |
be after |
want |
blow up |
become angry |
book in |
reserve a place |
break through |
achieve something new |
bring up |
vomit |
brush up |
improve |
call on |
visit |
cash in on |
exploit |
check in |
arrive |
check out |
leave |
chicken out |
run away |
come by |
obtain |
come down with |
fall ill |
come into |
inherit |
come up with |
produce |
cough up |
provide money |
cut in |
interrupt |
cut out |
suitable |
dig into |
eat heavily |
dish out |
supply |
fall in with |
agree |
fall under |
come under |
get at |
obtain |
get round |
persuade |
go along with |
agree |
go in for |
like |
have out |
discuss |
iron out |
resolve |
live up to |
maintain |
look down on |
hold in contempt |
look into |
investigate |
make out |
understand |
mess around |
disturb |
muddle along |
manage somehow |
open up |
speak frankly |
pass for |
be taken for |
play down |
reduce |
pull off |
complete successfully |
pull through |
recover from illness, rough times |
put in for |
request |
put up with |
tolerate |
rope in |
persuade, include |
run after |
pursue |
run down |
disparage |
run through |
read briefly |
see through |
find the truth |
stand for |
represent |
stand in |
replace |
stand up for |
defend |
take after |
resemble |
take to |
begin to like |
talk to |
reprimand |
touch upon |
mention briefly |
Idiomatic Expressions
Idioms are expressions peculiar to a language. They are fixed group of words the meaning of which cannot be inferred from an understanding of the component parts. They have only one form and can be used in only one way. English is very rich in idioms and the accurate and appropriate use of idioms is necessary for vividness and variety of writing and speaking.
Do not look for the literal meaning of an idiomatic expression. Thus, if somebody advices you not to put all your eggs in one basket or not to count your chickens before they are hatched he is not talking about poultry precautions but only cautioning you not to risk everything on one attempt, and also not to depend on something before it materializes. Thus, the special meaning attached to an idiom must be learnt carefully.
The form of an idiom is unchangeable and has to be learnt whole. It cannot be changed at will. Thus, the idiom to rain cats and dogs meaning to rain heavily cannot be changed to ‘to rain dogs and cats’ or ‘to rain a cat and a dog’.
There are idiomatic combinations of a verb and adverb, or a verb and preposition (or verb with both adverb and preposition). Such combinations are called phrasal verbs as we have seen in the previous section. As in the case of idioms, their meanings cannot be guessed from the meaning of the verb alone. Apart from ‘phrasal verbs’, idioms are also formed by making use of other parts of speech. Here is a list of idiomatic phrases using the word ‘mind’ (noun):
- bear/keep in mind: to remember
Please bear in mind my words.
- be in one's right mind: to be mentally well
Are you in your right mind to suggest this?
- be of one mind: to have the same opinion
All the officers are of one mind about the problems.
- be of/in two minds: to be undecided
As the organizers were of/in two minds, it was not possible to come to a decision.
- be out of one's mind: to be mentally ill
The old man is out of his mind as seen by his behaviour.
- Call to mind: to remember
Try however hard, I am not able to call to mind the lines in question.
Important English Idioms
The following list presents a collection of important idioms employed most frequently in written and spoken English, today. The list contains only pure idioms i.e., fixed expressions whose meanings are quite different from the literal sense of the words. Semi-idioms, phrasal verbs and proverbs are not included in the list.
A to Z |
thoroughly and completely |
A B C of |
the basic facts or principles of |
Achilles' heel |
a weak point in something that is otherwise without fault. |
acid test |
a decisive test of ability, etc. |
add fuel to the flames |
increase anger on any other strong active feeling. |
all in all |
on the whole, the main object of love and devotion |
apple of one's eye |
greatly loved person |
ask for the moon |
ask for something impossible |
at loggerheads |
quarrelling |
at one's wit's end |
very confused |
at sea |
in a state of ignorance or bewilderment |
at the eleventh hour |
at the last possible moment |
back the wrong horse |
make a wrong decision |
be in the soup |
be in trouble |
beat about the bush |
approach a matter in a round about way; speak indirectly |
bed of roses |
an easy, luxurious life |
black list |
list of persons or organizations regarded as untrust-worthy |
black sheep (of a family) |
disreputable member |
blow one's top |
become very angry |
blow one's own trumpet |
praise one's own abilities |
blue-eyed boy |
favourite |
bread and butter |
living |
by hook or by crook |
by using any means possible |
by leaps and bounds |
very quickly |
call a spade a spade |
speak plainly and directly |
carrot and the stick |
reward and punishment |
change one's tune |
change one's opinion |
climb on to the band wagon |
join the victorious party |
cock and bull story |
an absurdly incredible story |
close shave |
danger just avoided |
dead wood |
something that is no longer useful |
deliver the goods |
achieve desired results |
donkey's ears |
very long time |
drag one's feet |
act very slowly |
eat one's words |
take back a statement |
every Tom, Dick and Harry |
everyone and any one |
face the music |
difficulties arising from something one has done |
fish in troubled waters |
try to gain an advantage from a confused state of affairs |
fight tooth and nail |
fight with great determination |
free lance |
person who acts independently |
get cold feet |
become nervous |
get the boot |
be dismissed |
hat trick |
triple success |
hot water (be in, get into) |
trouble |
head and shoulders above |
far superior |
in black and white |
in writing |
in the long run |
finally |
jack of all trades |
person who has the ability to do different kinds of work but none of it very well |
keep one's fingers crossed |
hope that nothing will go wrong |
kick the bucket |
die |
last word |
best example |
live from hand to mouth |
live from day to day |
live wire |
an active, lively person |
look, stock and barrel |
completely |
maintain a low profile |
be unassertive |
lose heart |
become discouraged |
lose face |
feel humiliated |
much ado about nothing |
make great fuss about a trifle |
on one's toes |
attentive |
on the top of the world |
happy and healthy |
out of the blue |
unexpectedly |
out of the wood |
out of danger |
out of turn |
out of the correct order |
read between the lines |
understand more than is actually written or spoken |
red-tape |
too many formalities/regulations |
red herring |
side issue to divert attention |
stick out one's neck |
take a risk |
storm in a tea cup |
a lot of fuss over a trivial affair |
stone's throw |
a short distance |
take up the cudgels |
support or fight strongly for something |
throw up one's hands |
give up hope |
time of one's life |
very enjoyable time |
touch and go |
a very risky situation |
turn over a new leaf |
make a new and better start |
turn the tables |
change a situation to one's advantage over one's enemy |
up to one's ears |
have too much work to do |
wet blanket |
one who by criticism discourages a person |
wet behind the ears |
lacking experience |
weather the storm |
survive a crisis |
white elephant |
an expensive and useless possession |
with flying colours |
very successfully |
writing on the wall |
warning of future. |
wool gathering |
day dreaming |
worlds apart |
very different, complete opposites |
SINGLE WORD SUBSTITUTES
a place where animals are killed for food |
abattoir |
the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of two or more words |
alliteration |
a person who does something as a hobby and not for money |
amateur |
at home equally on land or in water |
amphibious |
the study of human society, customs, etc. |
anthropology |
a person who travels in space |
astronaut |
a person who does not believe in god |
atheist |
medical examination of a dead body |
autopsy |
a person with two wives |
bigamist |
a person with stubborn opinions |
bigot |
a person who leads an unconventional life |
bohemian |
a fussy government official |
bureaucrat |
a doctor who treats heart diseases |
cardiologist |
unthinking enthusiasm for one's country or cause |
chauvinism |
a person who sells sweets and pastimes |
confectioner |
a person with excellent taste and judgement |
connoisseur |
unlawful goods |
contraband |
a person who is recovering from illness |
convalescent |
a person who rouses people with emotional speeches |
demagogue |
a doctor who treats skin diseases |
dermatologist |
a person who has only slight interest in any subject |
dilettante |
a person who always thinks about himself |
egoist |
a doctor who treats diseases of glands |
endocrinologist |
a person who starts a commercial venture |
entrepreneur |
a person who enjoys eating |
epicure |
a person who is more outward than inward looking |
extrovert |
painless killing of people suffering from incurable and painful diseases |
euthanasia |
exact reproduction |
facsimile |
a person who sells flowers |
florist |
a list of words with meanings |
glossary |
a person who enjoys good food and drink |
gourmet |
a doctor who treats diseases of women |
gynecologist |
ranks of persona in order of importance |
hierarchy |
killing of one person by another |
homicide |
a person who constantly worries about his health |
hypochondriac |
a person who attacks popular beliefs |
iconoclast |
a person who comes into a foreign country to settle |
immigrant |
killing of children |
infanticide |
unable to pay debts |
insolvent |
dying without a will |
intestate |
a person who steals without intending to do so |
kleptomaniac |
a person who edits a dictionary |
lexicographer |
a person who gives his life for a cause |
martyr |
a person who hates women |
misogynist |
a fertile spot in a desert |
oasis |
a doctor who deliver babies |
obstetrician |
a doctor who treats eye diseases |
ophthalmologist |
a person who makes and sells spectacles |
optician |
a person who looks at the bright side of things |
optimist |
a doctor who treats diseases, and injuries of bones |
orthopedist |
a doctor who treats diseases of children |
pediatrician |
a doctor who studies diseases |
pathologist |
a person who always looks at the dark side of things |
pessimist |
a person who sells medicines |
pharmacist |
a person who collects postal stamps |
philatelist |
a person who poses to impress others |
poseur |
a doctor who treats mental diseases |
psychiatrist |
a story spread over a number of weeks |
serial |
not planned beforehand |
spontaneous |
a person who does not drink |
teetotaler |
act of quiet walking |
stroll |
any construction to commemorate great events or persons |
monument |
amount deducted from the declared price |
discount |
a man who accompanies another in a crime |
accomplice |
a building where dead bodies are kept before burial |
mortuary |
custom of having more than one wife at the same time |
polygamy |
collection and discussion of essays by several persons on a topic |
symposium |
cruel killing of a large number of people |
massacre |
custom of marrying only within the clan |
endogamy |
disease accompanied by pain, stiff ness and inflammation of muscles and joints |
rheumatism |
easy solution for all problems |
panacea |
excessive formalities in official or public business causing unnecessary delay |
red-tapism |
expressing sympathy with people in their loss of their dear ones |
condolence |
group of small islands in a sea |
archipelago |
imitate others to cause amusement |
mimicry |
information of death given in newspapers with a brief history |
obituary |
institution where persons suffering from tuberculosis are given treatment |
sanitarium |
knowledge of everything |
omniscience |
of the same kind or nature |
homogeneous. |
Linkers or Thought Connectives
Read the following sentences and note the underlined phrase in them:
- He engages himself in social work in addition to being the secretary of a flat owners' association.
- She worked very hard to get that job, however, she was not lucky enough to get it.
- The temperature appears to be stable, although it has been raining for the last two days.
- He is good at mathematics, but weak in grammar.
- She is good at painting and playing music.
The words/expressions underlined in the above sentences are called linkers or thought connectives. Using the correct linkers helps us in sequencing and linking up ideas and concepts in a piece of writing. Here are five sets of some important linkers that we use in our different forms of writing and speaking:
- in addition to; further; moreover; apart from; although; however; though; in spite of;
- whereas; on the contrary; for example; for instance; thus; such as ; in addition;
- furthermore; then; in this case; indeed; surely; above all; certainly; in the same way;
- on the other hand; in contrast; whereas; instead; similarly; more importantly;
- additionally; in the same way, because, especially, then, of course, fortunately, before, after, besides, well, in other words, even; but.