How a computer works

The technology ecosystem model presented in Chapter 1 starts with breaking down the hardware of a computer to its basic components. In simplest terms, a computer has four fundamental components—input, output, processing, and storage. Hardware elements or the physical components of which a computer is comprised have become smaller and more compact, but are essentially the same across platforms. These main pieces are the central processing unit (CPU), power circuits, memory, storage, input, and output. Software or application components determine how information or content is used and manipulated.

The CPU is the brain of the computer—a series of switches that are essentially either on or off—a binary system or string of ones and zeroes. Early processors were constructed using vacuum tubes that were hot, fragile, bulky and expensive. This meant that it took and entire room (or rooms) to accommodate a single computer. The 1940s-era ENIAC weighed 30 tons and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes with the tubes being run at a lower than designed capacity in an attempt to lessen their rate of failure (Swedin & Ferro, 2005). The EDVAC used a great deal less tubes (5,000) but the heat they generated caused technicians and engineers to work in their underwear during the summer months.

Computer development followed a path very similar to that of radio discussed in Chapter 8. As can be seen there, science and technological developments are often tied to war—military battling to best their foes. In 1947, Bell Telephone scientists invented “point-contact” transistors made out of a semiconductor material—much smaller, lighter and more durable than tubes (Swedin & Ferro, 2005). Military funding sped up this development of transistors that were key components in computers built throughout the 1950s. By the 1960s “integrated circuits” contained multiple tiny transistors on a single silicon “chip.” Continued miniaturization has enabled complex processing systems to be reduced from the size of a room to a single chip, often smaller than a pinkie fingernail.

Hardware

Modern computers are built with a motherboard that contains all the basic electrical functions. A motherboard is the physical foundation for the computer. Additional “boards” can be tied into the mother to provide supplementary components—extra memory, high-resolution graphics, improved video, and audio systems. Memory of a computer determines how much information it can store, how fast it can process that information and how complex the manipulations can be.

For a computer to operate, the CPU needs two types of memory, random access memory (RAM) and storage memory. Most forms of memory are intended for temporary storage and easy access. RAM space is always at a premium—all data and programs must be transferred to random access memory before any processing can occur. Frequently run program data and information are stored in temporary storage known as cache memory; users typically access the same information or instructions over and over during a session. Running multiple programs at the same time creates a “RAM cram” (Long & Long, 1996) situation where there is not enough memory to run programs. That’s the reason many troubleshooting instructions include clearing “cache” memory before re-attempting an operation.

As of early 2018, new computers are being manufactured with approximately 4GB or 8GB RAM (“How much RAM do you need? It’s probably less than you think,” 2018). Budget tablets or PCs have around 2GB; 8GB is recommended for casual gamers and generalpurpose users. Computer professionals and hard-core gamers will be looking for machines with 16GB that provide optimal performance. High-end, specific purpose-built workstations can be obtained with 32GB RAM. Typically, the more complex an application or program, the more RAM that is used. However, more RAM does not necessarily mean better performance. RAM should be considered for immediate access, but not long-term storage. For large amounts of data, a hard drive or external storage device is more appropriate.

Most computers have built-in internal hard drives that contain its operating system and key software programs. External storage systems typically have high capacity and are used to back up information or serve as an archive. These systems connect to a computer using USB, thunderbolt, or firewire connection. Increasingly, additional memory is part of a “cloud,” or virtual network system that is digitally stored in a remote location.

Small-scale storage devices called flash drives or thumb drives allow users to share or transport information between computers or systems, especially when network connections are unreliable or not available. Other memory or storage devices include SD cards, CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. SD cards are most often associated with digital cameras or other small recording devices. Information is easily deleted or can be transferred to a permanent location before the contents are erased and written over. CDs and DVDs are considered “optical discs” and are commonly associated with movies and music files—although some versions have read/write capacity, most are used for a single purpose or one time only. Information in this format is accessed using an optical disc drive that uses laser light to read and write to or from the discs. For many years, software programs were produced as a CD-ROM (Read Only Memory) version.

Manufacturers are building machines without optic drives to save space and lessen battery drain. Headphone jacks, USB sockets, and other input/output ports are being eliminated as laptops are being constructed less than 15mm in thickness. (Murray & Santo Domingo, 2017). USB-C ports are emerging as the industry standard connector for power and data. These ports are 2.6mm tall versus the 7.5mm of a standard USB. Murray and Santo Domingo (2017) tout USB-C as the emerging industry standard with no up/down or in/out orientation offering greater bandwidth for data transfer and reduced power consumption.

Input and output devices are the last pieces of the computer anatomy. Input devices include keyboards, mice, microphones, scanners, and touchpads. Sophisticated computer operators may also have joysticks, hand held controllers, and sensory input devices. Output options include printers, speakers, monitor, and increasingly, virtual reality headsets.

Most current computers or personal computing devices are also equipped with Bluetooth, a form of technology that uses short-range wireless frequencies to connect and sync systems. Users looking for a wireless experience enjoy the “uncabled” functionality of such systems. Wireless options are also available for input devices (mice and keyboards), often using radio frequency (RF) technology whereby the input item contains a transmitter that sends messages to a receiver that plugs into a USB port.

Software

For all the sophistication and highly technical components of a computer, it is essentially useless without software. These are the programs that enable the computer to perform its operations. At the core of each computer is the operating system—the Windows versus Mac debate continues to rage, but user preference remains a personal choice. These systems have more similarities than differences at this point in time, however Windows is the most used operating system worldwide (Ghosh, 2017).

Operating systems control the look and feel of your devices—and to a certain extend how you connect your multiple-device households. One reason for the dominance of Windows is the ability to connect devices from a variety of manufacturers. Mac/Apple products tend to only connect with each other—although there are “compatible” technologies that adapt across platforms. Unfortunately for users, frequent updates or system changes can render software obsolete. MacOS allows users free and continual updates to its operating systems. Windows users lose the ability to get systems support or updates after operating systems are phased out. Business Insider suggests that there were at least 140 million computers still running the popular Windows XP (introduced in 2001) when support was ended in 2014 (Ghosh, 2017). Without support, users were forced to upgrade the operating system or purchase a new computer.

There are hundreds of thousands of individual programs and applications for use on either system. Users can write, calculate, hear, watch, learn, play, read, edit, control, and produce…virtually anything. Outside of a “computer” the most popular operating system for personal computing devices is Google’s Android platform (Simpson, 2017).

Hardware

Users can purchase a basic computer for less than $100—for many users in the U.S., this is their first interaction with computing technology as a toddler. Most tablets more closely resemble a cell phone than a computer. High-end tablets with more versatile and sophisticated operations are available for $900–1200, but the most popular models are $250–100. Entry-level laptops—perfect for younger families to use for homework, web surfing, and movie watching—can often be found in the same price range.

PC Magazine rated the best value ultraportable laptops for 2018 the Acer brand’s Swift models at $350-$400. For general purpose usage, Dell and HP earned the best reviews with a price tag ranging from $800-1200 (Santo Domingo, 2018). These new generation lightweight computers weigh three pounds or less. Budget-friendly Chromebooks offer a personal computing device option for students and casual users that spend most of their time in a web-browser. According to Murray (2018), this low-cost Windows alternative doesn’t have an impressive hardware system, but functionality beyond basic web-centric operations is being introduced. Touch and large screen displays and more Windows-like functionality will soon be options in high-end Chromebook versions (Murray, 2018).

Software

Laptops and desktops have been trapped in a Windows or MacOS battle since the 80s. Even students who might otherwise be permanently attached to their phones are still likely to use a MacBook, Windows laptop, or Chromebook some of the time (Mossberg, 2017). Ackerman (2018) reported from the 2018 Consumer Electronics Show that tablets have been “subsumed” by large screen phones, and laptops are becoming more like phones with always-on LTE connectivity. Cloud computing—the delivery of on-demand computing resources via connection to the Internet—has eliminated the need for many people to purchase hardware and individual software programs. Storage and access are available for free or on a pay-as-you-go basis.

Common cloud computing examples include Microsoft’s Office 365 and OneDrive that marry local and online services; Google Drive—docs, sheets and slides that are purely online; and Apple’s iCloud—primarily storage, but offering cloud-based versions of popular programs (Griffith, 2016). Hybrid services like Box, DropBox, and SugarSync are considered cloud-based because they store synchronized information. Synchronization is the key to cloud computing, regardless of where or how information is accessed.

In short, with an online connection, cloud computing can be done anywhere, at any time with any number of devices. At least that’s how it impacts typical consumers—people at home or school, and small-to-medium office environments. For big business, a subscription (Software-as-a-service, SaaS) or custom application (Platform-as-a-service, PaaS) over the Internet might be used (Griffith, 2016). Tech industry giants Amazon, Microsoft, and Google also operate an Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) that can be leased by other companies. As can be expected, cloud-computing services are moneymaking ventures. Griffith (2016) reported that $100 billion was generated in 2012 and the market is expected to reach $500 billion by 2020.