CHAPTER 4

Building Resilience to Natural Disasters: Toward Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Sri Lanka

R. Lalitha S. Fernando
M.S. Dimuthu Kumari
W.M.D.M. Dissanayaka

Department of Public Administration, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka

Background of the Study and Problem Identification

The agriculture sector remains the backbone of many rural economies. (According to the World Bank (2017a), the agricultural sector contributes 4 percent to global gross domestic product (GDP) and around 26 percent to the GDP of many least developed countries. Also, the population directly involved in agriculture is significant. By 2017, the figure is about 26.81 percent at the global level and 60 percent from least developed countries (World Bank 2017b). Normally, the agricultural sector is badly affected by natural disasters, particularly from floods and drought.

According to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2013), during the period 1980 to 2011, 3,455 flood situations, 2,689 storms, 470 droughts, and 395 extreme temperature situations were recorded worldwide. According to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies (2016), the total number of natural disasters reported during the period 2005 to 2015 worldwide is as follows: 2,556-Asia; 1,522-Africa; 1,242-America; 846-Europe; and 147-Oceanian continent.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has noted that Asia is the most affected region, its estimated losses to the agricultural sector totaling $28 billion. A generic trend is that damage and losses from mega disasters in agriculture are higher in countries where the contribution of agriculture to GDP is still high and where agriculture provides a main source of employment. Both characteristics feature high in LDCs (UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015).

The agricultural sector in Sri Lanka is considered a major economic force in the country, contributing significantly to the national economy, food security, and employment. More than 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas, engaging in agriculture for their livelihoods (Department of Agriculture 2016). Currently, the agricultural sector accounts for about 7.1 percent of the GDP and 27.1 percent of employment (CBSL 2016). Rice is the staple food of the inhabitants of Sri Lanka, and paddy is cultivated as a wetland crop in all the districts. According to the Sri Lanka paddy statistics (2016), the total amount of land devoted to paddy is estimated to be 708,000 hectares at present. There are two cultivation seasons, based on two monsoons (Yala and Maha), which bring rain for cultivation. The Maha season falls during the northeast monsoon, from September to March. The Yala season extends from May to the end of August.

Floods, drought, landslides, and lightning are frequent disasters in Sri Lanka.

By April 2014, the Department of Agriculture reported that lack of rain has damaged 83,746 hectares of paddy planted area resulting in an estimated production loss of 280,000 MT of rice (15 per cent of forecasted production) (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2014).

During the past 10 years, Sri Lanka has faced 23 occurrences of flooding, in which over 500 lives were lost and 9 million people affected, according to the International Water Management Institute (2014). These floods caused an economic loss of $41 billion (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2014). The Department of Agriculture reported that lack of rain damaged 83,746 hectares of paddy-planted areas, resulting in an estimated production loss of 280,000 metric tons (MT) of rice (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2014). Many households in the disaster-affected areas engage in small-scale farming activities. The damages are also reported in the livestock sector. According to the Statistics of the Department of Animal Production and Health (2014), over 19,900 cases of foot-and-mouth disease among the livestock were reported from 18 districts (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2014) after flooding. Around 75,000 families have been affected by a flood that occurred in Sri Lanka in May 2016 (Disaster Management Information System in Sri Lanka 2016).

When natural disasters occur, the poor are the most vulnerable segment of society. According to the World Bank (2016), 78 percent of the world’s poor live in rural areas and depend largely on farming for their survival. The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (2015) also noted that disasters have a direct impact on the livelihoods and food security of millions of small farmers, pastoralists, fisheries, and forest-dependent communities in developing countries. The poor in the rural sector engaged in agriculture are, unsurprisingly, helpless in the face of disasters, and is imperative to ensure their survival and improve their living conditions through sustainable agricultural practices.

The impact of disasters could be seen as various forms such as loss of harvest and livestock, irrigation systems and other agricultural infrastructure, contamination of water bodies and also spreading various diseases.

According to the FAO (2015), the agricultural sector accounts for about 22 percent of the total damage caused by natural disasters, particularly in developing countries. Further, disasters transform the agricultural trade flows and also the agriculture-based manufacturing subsectors because of the frequent fluctuations in the supply side of agricultural products. Most significantly, natural hazards weaken economic growth in many developing countries. However, the FAO (2015) commented that mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the agricultural sector is inadequate. Despite their national platforms, policies, and legislation, only a few countries address agriculture-related issues in disaster situations. Therefore, it is time to rethink existing agricultural policies, particularly in developing countries and analyze them to identify policy gaps.

It has been observed that the existing agricultural policy in Sri Lanka has been, to some extent, enriched with several components but that these have not been adequately considered during implementation. This chapter thus aims to identify issues of policy implementation. The main objectives of this study are to identify the strengths and weaknesses of existing agricultural policy in Sri Lanka and to propose the best strategies to cope with disasters by examining good practices in other countries. Agricultural policies should be sustainable even during disasters. This study assumes significance in that its recommendations would be useful in designing and maintaining a sustainable agriculture policy for Sri Lanka.

Methodology

A qualitative approach based on secondary data was employed. Best practices of sustainable agricultural policies of select countries were reviewed. Government circulars, newspaper and journal articles, and e-sources were used as secondary data. Thematic analysis with substantial description was used to analyze the data. A method of policy analysis proposed by Dunn (2016) and an approach proposed by Hoogwood and Gunn (1984) were used mainly to analyze agricultural policy in Sri Lanka. This study selected the retrospective strategy suggested by Dunn (2016). This strategy consists of three aspects—a discipline-oriented approach, a problem-oriented approach, and an application-oriented approach. The problem-oriented approach was the main focus of the study, identifying issues in the implementation of the policy. Content analysis and process analysis, proposed by Hoogwood and Gunn (1984), were used to analyze Sri Lankan agricultural policy.

Literature Review on Agriculture and Disasters

This section discusses related concepts of disasters and agriculture and also relevant literature on policy analysis. Selected best policies and practices related to sustainable agricultural policies and related empirical research are also presented.

Disaster Resilience

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR 2005), the term disaster resilience is used to describe the capacity of any individual, organization, or country that can make the required adjustments and progress despite the damages and shocks of disasters, without sacrificing its future development aspirations. Also, Hyogo Framework for Action (2005) defines this term as the ability of an individual, an organization, or a country to learn from past disasters in organizing itself for disasters to reduce the same kind of risk in future events. However, according to the International Food Policy Research Institute (2013), resilience is the capability of physical infrastructure to properly absorb disaster shocks. Thus, disaster resilience could be considered the ability of the affected people to bounce back from shocks and adverse effects and improve their capacity to mitigate the impact of disasters.

Vulnerability

According to the IFRC (2016), vulnerability is the inability or weakened ability to foresee, to handle, to resist, or to recover from the impact of a threat. However, Cannon, Twigg, and Rowell (2016) note that it is not the same as poverty. Of course, being poor and being vulnerable in disasters are two different issues. Even the rich may be helpless in the face of disaster. According to Cannon, Twigg, and Rowell (2016), there is a close relationship between being poor and being troubled by natural disasters. The level of vulnerability relies on the type of livelihood of the community, and the agricultural population is more likely to be vulnerable in disaster situations.

Natural disasters create serious issues for agricultural sustainability. The rural farmers constantly contend with critical weather conditions, price variability of materials and harvests, livestock damages, and pest-related issues (Miranda and Vedenov 2001). The future activities of this community are fraught with uncertainty. On the other hand, banks and lenders hesitate to provide agricultural loans in view of the relatively high probability of default among farmers. Celia A. Harvey et al. (2014) urged the importance of taking adaptation measures to reduce the vulnerability of farmers during disasters.

Early Warning Systems

An early warning system can be identified as a key component of disaster risk reduction, which is important in preventing loss of lives and lowering the disasters’ economic impact (ISDR, 2006 ). It is a technical device to predict possible disasters and related risks. According to ISDR (2006), early warning systems should have the following four components—(1) risk awareness, (2) monitoring and threatening service, (3) communication, and (4) response-ability. Thus, early warning systems facilitate public education and publicize warnings about risk.

Sustainable Agriculture

The term sustainable agriculture has received increased attention over the last three decades. Dictionaries define “sustain” as keeping in existence continuously or maintaining continuously with the implication of long-term support or permanence (http://www.yourdictionary.com, 2018). In developing countries, sustainable agriculture is identified as a critical factor for long-lasting and inclusive growth because of the cross-cutting nature of agriculture over all the other sectors (European Union 2012). With no agreed definition, sustainable agriculture has been defined from various perspectives. The European Union has identified four main reasons for introducing sustainable agricultural policies: (1) increasing demand for food under the pressure of the increasing population; (2) farming being a key weapon to combat poverty; (3) agriculture’s twin role in adapting and mitigating climate change; and (4) the natural resource constraint in agriculture.

According to John Ikerd (quoted by Richard Duesterhaus 1990), sustainability pertains to agricultural and farming methods that are able to maintain their productivity and effectiveness to people indefinitely. Further, the authors note, such systems should have characteristics such as preserving resources, being socially helpful, economical, and environment friendly. Although their description relates to farming, the term sustainable can be better understood in a broader context in relation to social, economic, commercial, and environmental concern. Thus, sustainable agricultural policy concerns three main domains—economic, social, and environmental—and agricultural policies and strategies should be economically viable, socially fair, and environmentally sustainable.

D’Souza et al. (1993) discuss the specific practices that constitute a sustainable production system and classify a sustainable agricultural system as one that involves a combination of sustainable production practices. This study defines sustainable agriculture as one that links the use of several appropriate practices or technologies such as fertilizers, proper crop rotation, the use of combined pest control techniques, seedbed preparation, proper cultivation to control weeds, and control of the use of chemical-type products such as fertilizers, pesticides, growth stimulators, and various types of antibiotics. Thus, sustainable agriculture encourages the use of production practices that have the potential to reduce environmental damage.

Sustainable Agricultural Policies and Best Practices

The United Nations Report on Agriculture and Disaster (UN 2014) described risk reduction policies in developing countries and highlighted several areas that an agriculture-related national policy should focus on. These focal areas include agricultural planning, post disaster recovery assessment, agricultural legislation/policies, and capacities for disaster risk reduction in agricultural agencies, agricultural preparedness, annual budget allocation, agriculture-specific institutional mechanisms and setup. According to their framework, the following major areas are related to this study.

1. 1.Prioritize critical sectors and themes, propose clear financial commitments, and reinforce the systematic incorporation to reduce disaster risk
2. 2.Incorporate sectoral policies and plans with proper disaster risk reduction (DRR) mechanisms and climate change adaptation (CCA) strategies
3. 3.Give priority to vulnerable groups in disaster situations
4. 4.Integrate the humanitarian and developmental aspects of interventions for effective risk management in agriculture.

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) Cambodia has aligned its’ agricultural policy with the guidelines given in Sendai Framework. The Cambodian Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction in Agriculture (2013) has identified five key areas in its DRR plan.

1. 1.Strong institutional and technical capacities with proper coordination mechanisms
2. 2.Proactive DRR with early warning systems
3. 3.Support for agricultural DRR through knowledge management and innovation
4. 4.Reduction of vulnerabilities by implementing community-based programs
5. 5.Inter-linkages of DRR and agricultural interventions.

These areas of focus are suitable for many DRR plans.

The success of any strategy, however, depends on the availability of related organizational arrangements, better coordination, and adequate resource allocations through government intervention.

The design of sustainable agricultural policies should incorporate various strategies to cope with vulnerability. The Nepal Government’s Agricultural Policy (Nepal Law Commission 2014) highlighted several aspects for consideration in CCA and disaster risk management plans. Accordingly, the sustainable practices are:

1. 1.Introduction of surveillance systems to assess the effect of disasters and mobilize relief schemes
2. 2.Provision of special facilities to the targeted groups to construct and install small irrigation infrastructure
3. 3.Development of safety nets (food and nutrition) for farmers when climate hazards and/or natural disasters occur
4. 4.Extension of the existing livestock insurance programs
5. 5.Minimization of the adverse impact of ecological issues in soil and water bodies resulting from use of agricultural chemicals.

Empirical Research on Sustainable Agricultural Practices

Celia A. Harvey et al. (2014) summarize the coping strategies resorted to by agricultural households when faced with challenges from disasters. These strategies include giving up some of the daily meals, changing the regular menu, selling or mortgaging assets for food, borrowing money, borrowing food from neighbors or relatives, taking children out of school, sending them to work, sending adults to get outside jobs, renting their traditional lands to other people and/or receiving food aid from organizations. According to Celia A. Harvey et al. (2014), various strategies have been used by farmers in different disasters, and these are presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Various strategies used by farmers according to the nature of disasters

Disaster	Strategies used
Drought	•Change planting times •Use multiple crop varieties •Change crop sites or lands •Build a proper water-harvesting system for crops •Install home irrigation systems
Floods	•Replant crops after flooding subsides •Make diversion ditches to take water out of fields •Change crop planting times •Use multiple crop varieties •Stop farming land that was flooded
Climate changing situations	•Increase use of intercropping •Build a communal granary/food storage system to preserve crops •Shift field locations •Use diversified production systems by incorporating trees •Devise soil and water conservation practices •Use multiple crop varieties
Situation where water availability is changing due to climate change	•Use ditches to direct water/floods away from certain areas •Develop micro irrigation systems for crops •Build water-harvesting schemes for crops and livestock •Build water-harvesting system for domestic consumption

Source: Celia A. Harvey et al. (2014).

The State of New South Wales (1998) noted that in promoting the benefits of sustainable agriculture in society, all of the long-standing socioeconomic and environmental aspects are important. Weerakoon (2009) noted that sustainability prioritizes retention of soil fertility. In this regard, preservation of soil erosion, utilization of natural resources obtained from farmland or from the environment, such as cow dung, cow urine, leftovers from the previous farming season, waste materials, and plants are useful. Several sustainable agricultural practices adopted by Sri Lankan farmers have been summarized by the author and presented in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Sustainable agricultural practices adopted by Sri Lankan farmers

Agricultural practices	Examples of sustainable agricultural practices
Soil and water conservation	•Stone bunds and organic bunds •Eyebrow bunds •Mulching •SALT technology (Sloping Agricultural Land) •Alley cropping •Live fencing
Improving soil fertility	•Live compost pits •Wormy compost •Compost fertilizer •Using straw as fertilizers
Cropping systems	•Mixed cropping •Terracing •SRI System
Herbal pest control	•Neem mixture •Chili, Anoda (Annona muricata), garlic mixture •Leaf mixtures •Castor oil
Self-production of seeds	•Saving the balance seeds •Setting up plant nurseries •Selecting seeds and storing seeds

Source: Weerakoon L. (2009).

Policy Gaps, Analysis, and Methodologies

A policy gap is a difference between expected policy outcomes and observed policy outcomes. Identifying policy gaps is important because it can enhance policy performance (Dunn 2016). According to Dunn (2016), policy performance is the extent to which observed policy results contribute to solving the policy problem, and, in practice, policy performance is never perfect. Policy analysis is required in identifying policy gaps. Policy analysis refers to describing a policy from various perspectives (Fernando 2009). Policy analysis has been defined in various ways. Dunn (2016) defines policy analysis as a process of multidisciplinary inquiry aiming at the creation of critical assessment and communication of policy-relevant information. Various methods could be used to analyze a policy, and they all involve different kinds of judgments (Dunn 2016). The policy analysis methodology is not limited to any specific social science field (Dunn 2016), but is methodologically eclectic, allowing practitioners to freely select a method from among scientific methods, whether qualitative or quantitative, as long as it produces reliable information.

To analyze the policy gaps, Dunn (2016) proposed four methods, as mentioned in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Methods of policy analysis

Method	Description
Prospective and retrospective analysis	Prospective analysis seeks to transform information before policy actions are taken, whereas retrospective analysis is an ex-post analysis (done after the policies have been implemented). This ex-post analysis is normally of three kinds: 1.Discipline-oriented approach - tries to advance and experiment with discipline-based theories that describe the roots and consequences of policies. 2.Problem-oriented approach - seeks to explain practical problems in implementing policies. 3.Application-oriented approach - seeks to explain the causes and consequences of policies in relation to their goals and objectives.
Descriptive analysis and normative analysis	This method tries to explain, comprehend, and foresee the policies by understanding patterns of causality, whereas normative analysis tries to provide prescriptions on policy performance and desired policies.
Problem-finding and problem-solving analysis	In this method, problem-finding analysis seeks to discover problems of policy definition, whereas problem-solving analysis seeks to solve problems rather than find them.
Segmented and integrated analysis	This method seeks to bridge several pillars of multidisciplinary policy analysis.

Source: Dunn 2016.

According to Hogwood and Gunn (1984), policy can be analyzed in terms of its content, process, output, evaluation, information study, process advocacy, and policy advocacy, and its analysis can be either prescriptive or descriptive.

Data Analysis and Discussion

This section consists of two main parts. The first part of this section summarizes the existing agricultural policy in Sri Lanka in terms of its policy statement, goals and objectives, and existing institutional mechanism; the second part examines the strengths and weaknesses of agricultural policy in Sri Lanka.

Analysis of Agricultural Policy in Sri Lanka

According to the National Agriculture Policy of the Ministry of Agricultural Development and Agrarian Services in Sri Lanka, the present agricultural policy focuses on major goals and objectives, namely (1) Increasing domestic agricultural production to ensure food and nutrition security of the nation, (2) Enhancing agricultural productivity to ensure sustainable growth, (3) Maximizing benefits and minimizing adverse effects of globalization on agriculture, both domestic and export-oriented, (4) Adopting productive farming systems and improved agro-technologies with a view to reducing the unit cost of production and increasing profit, (5) Adopting farming technologies that are environment friendly and harmless to health, (6) Promoting agro-based industries and increasing employment opportunities, and (7) Enhancing the income and living standards of the farming community.

The National Agriculture Policy (2015) includes a policy statement that directs several important aspects of the policy, some of whose salient features are as follows:

Promoting Agricultural Production

The policy focuses on ensuring that agricultural production in the country is technically sound and economically viable. It promotes environmentally sound and socially acceptable programs aimed at achieving sustainable agricultural growth and proper utilization of resources.

Seeds and Planting Materials

The policy aims to produce and supply high-quality seeds to farmers. This also involves planting materials of commercial varieties in a viable environment focusing on both state and private sector participation.

Fertilizers

The policy discourages the use of chemical fertilizers and promotes the production and utilization of organic and bio-fertilizers in agricultural production, with the ultimate aim of reducing the use of chemical fertilizers through Integrated Plant Nutrition Systems (IPNS).

Pesticides

The policy encourages minimization of the use of synthetic pesticides in agriculture all activities and promotes bio pesticides and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in the production process.

Irrigation and Water Management

The policy encourages the use of efficient water management and moisture retention techniques in achieving high productivity in agriculture. It helps to conserve the existing water resources for sustainable agricultural development.

Agricultural Credit

The policy aims to strengthen rural credit institutions in the country, which are connected with farmers’ investments, savings, and risk management activities. It also envisages simplified procedures for providing loans for agricultural activities.

Postharvest Technology

The policy promotes and develops better harvesting and processing techniques for farmers to increase the value addition of agricultural production. Further, the policy aims to develop storage and transport methods to minimize pre- and postharvest losses and thereby improve the quality of production to meet domestic and export market demands.

Institutional Mechanism of Agricultural Policy in Sri Lanka

Several organizations are responsible for the implementation of the policy.

Ministry of Agriculture in Sri Lanka

Ministry of agriculture is the main authority responsible for all agriculture-related activities in Sri Lanka. Currently, several organizations and departments are operating under the ministry.

1. 1.Department of Agriculture
2. The objectives of the Department of Agriculture are to maintain and increase productivity and production of the food crop and enhance the income and living conditions of the farmers. The department is involved in making food available at affordable prices to the consumer. Its major functions include research, extension, production of seed and planting material, and regulatory services related to plant quarantine, soil conservation, and pesticides (Department of Agriculture 2016).
3. 2.Department of Agrarian Development
4. The mission of the department is the formulation and timely implementation of institutional facilitator, legal and management services for optimum productivity of all agriculture lands as well as the sustainable development of the farming community. The department is involved in various tasks in agrarian development to ensure the maximum utilization of agricultural lands in accordance with the government’s agricultural policies. This department makes arrangements to protect the cultivation rights of agricultural landlords and occupiers/tenant cultivators, making regulations regarding registration and functioning of farmers’ organizations (Department of Agrarian Development 2013).

Agricultural and Agrarian Insurance Board

The agricultural and agrarian insurance board provides insurance services for agriculture-related activities in Sri Lanka. Currently, it provides agricultural crop insurance, livestock insurance, tractors and agricultural machinery insurance, store insurance, health care insurance, and accident insurance (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).

1. 1.Agricultural Crop Insurance
2. The agricultural and agrarian insurance board is currently providing paddy, buckwheat crop, vegetable crop, and other crop insurance for farmers (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).
3. 2.Livestock Insurance
4. The aim of this insurance is to reduce the risk of farmers engaged in the livestock industry, improve dairy production, and encourage the younger population of the industry by providing a fixed survival pattern. The main focus of this policy is on cattle and goats because they are the most common livestock in Sri Lanka (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).
5. 3.Tractors and Agricultural Machinery Insurance
6. The main aim of this insurance is to provide coverage for devices such as tractors used by those engaged in agriculture and also for agricultural equipment such as water pumps and leaf harvester machines. Investors will be encouraged into mechanization in agriculture (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).
7. 4.Storage Insurance
8. This insurance scheme has been introduced to minimize the risk of investors’ assembled stocks and is designed to provide insurance coverage to cover the cost of damage in natural disasters as well as that caused by animals and insects to stocks (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).
9. 5.Healthcare Insurance
10. The aim of this insurance scheme is to reduce the financial difficulties faced by hospitalization of farmers due to accidents or illness (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).
11. 6.Accident Insurance
12. This insurance covers accidents involving farmers, and bereaved family members would find the insurance plan helpful (Agricultural Insurance Board 2016).

Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HKATI)

The role of this organization is mainly to generate a range of policy analyses that cover key aspects of human and resource development in the agrarian sector. It has developed into a premier national institute in the field of socioeconomic research involving the use of land and water. It has also developed the necessary skills and infrastructure for providing relevant training to farmers, field workers, and managers in both the state and the nonstate sectors (Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute 2014).

Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research Policy

This is to ensure that agricultural research, development, and innovations are directed toward national development goals through policy formulation, facilitation, coordination, monitoring and evaluation, and impact assessment and published in journals (Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research Policy 2016).

Institute of Postharvest Technology

This institute functions under the Ministry of Agriculture Development and Agrarian Services. It is the main institution in Sri Lanka engaged in improving the postharvest technology of rice/other grains, field crops, fruits and vegetables, and spices through research, training and extension, consultancy, advisory, and other development activities (The Institute of Post Harvest Technology 2016).

National Food Promotion Board

The main objectives of this board are:

1. 1.To provide incentives to develop the economic and social status of the agricultural community and guide them in achieving a sustainable agricultural pattern;
2. 2.To make strategic recommendations and safeguard their coordination for organizations involved in local agricultural activities;
3. 3.To coordinate and secure the aid of local and foreign agencies for the Government’s agricultural programs;
4. 4.To monitor and provide recommendations to local and foreign nongovernmental organizations engaged in agriculture;
5. 5.To act as a party intervenient to encourage and coordinate technical and other aids of agricultural investment;
6. 6.To provide incentives for agricultural product diversification, increasing productivity and product distribution and marketing;
7. 7.To take suitable technology to the agricultural community for yield management, value addition for products and packaging; and
8. 8.To provide incentives to the community to promote the usage and awareness of indigenous and traditional agricultural crops (Sri Lanka National Freedom from Hunger Campaign Board 2011).

Ceylon Fertilizer Company Ltd

The company is making sustained efforts to promote agricultural development in Sri Lanka by supplying quality products to the agricultural sector via the marketing infrastructure and support network of warehouses all over the country (Ceylon Fertilizer Company Ltd 2015).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Sri Lankan Agricultural Policy

The agricultural policy in Sri Lanka has some strengths in terms of sustainable considerations. The policy consists of multiple goals and objectives to promote agriculture with a view to achieving risk reduction in disasters. The focal areas of the agricultural policy are an increase in agricultural production, reduction of farming cost, promotion of agro-based industries, and improvement of employment opportunities for farmers. Several steps have been taken to establish an institutional mechanism to meet these goals.

Encouraging the development of water control and water conservation techniques is one of the areas of concern for DRR in the sustainable agricultural policy. The agricultural policy in Sri Lanka incorporates this aspect in its policy statement under irrigation and water management. Under the irrigation and water management section of the policy, consideration was given to (a) protection of irrigation reservoirs, canals, drainage systems, and other structures from damage by climate; (b) usage and stimulating conservation of rainwater and groundwater; and (c) increasing water use efficiency and promoting modern and intensive irrigation technologies for water conservation. However, the effectiveness of all the organizational initiatives needs to be assessed using empirical data.

In regard to agricultural credit and insurance, the policy encourages the strengthening of rural credit institutions connected with farmers’ investments, saving, and risk management. Thus, the initiation of appropriate agricultural insurance schemes helps farmers to reduce risk associated with natural calamities. However, informal discussions with several farmers disclosed a gap between the current level of external supports and farmers’ capability to adapt to climate change. Hence, the government’s intervention seems inadequate to coping properly with climate changes.

The policy documents have several notable weaknesses in their avowed aim of promoting sustainable agriculture with a view to achieving risk reduction during disasters. These weaknesses may be highlighted as follows.

Even though the concept of sustainable agriculture integrates the three main goals of environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity, the existing policy focuses solely on improving productivity. Measures to ensure social justice, as well as environmental sustainability, seem inadequate. As the farmers’ main source of subsistence is agriculture, their income levels are very low. That situation violates the principle of social and economic justice. Besides, no attempt has been made to promote diversification of agriculture and diversification of the livelihood of the farmers, and farmers have, as a result, become more vulnerable, both economically and socially.

Environmental sustainability means protecting the natural environment for the future generations while engaging in agriculture to achieve the needs of the present generation. This is another dimension of sustainable agriculture. Under the agricultural policy, no organization has taken the responsibility of preserving the environment. Even though the policy statement emphasizes the promotion, production, and utilization of organic and bio-fertilizers in agricultural activities, no serious attempt has been made to realize that goal. Even though the Ceylon Fertilizer Corporation LTD has functioned for the last 50 years under the Ministry of Agriculture, its main mission is “ensuring the profitable sustainability of the company by manufacturing and distributing fertilizer catering to the multitude of market demands in order to increase products, income, and profitability in the Sri Lanka agricultural and Farmer Community services with the maximum contribution of the ‘Lakeshore family’ in compliance with state policies” (The Ceylon Fertilizer Corporation LTD 2017). Hence, the company seems to promote the use of chemical fertilizers, which have to be imported. The use of chemical fertilizer is recognized as one of the main causes of water pollution, deterioration of farmers’ health (kidney disease), and soil degradation. The promotion of sustainable agriculture, however, requires that the use of organic fertilizer be encouraged, yet it has received inadequate attention.

Promoting and enhancing early warning systems in the interest of proactive DRR and climate change adoption is a major element in the effort to ensure sustainable agriculture. However, the policy pays no attention to the need to establish the improved use of climate and weather information and forecasts or of early warning systems about potential disasters, leaving farmers vulnerable to disasters.

Even though several institutions are involved in agricultural research and are mainly responsible for national policy formulation and implementation, no authorities are effectively responsible for improving awareness among farmers and for introducing appropriate crop selection, cultivation methods, and new varieties of crops, quick-growing crops, and alternative farming systems to sustain them and create resilience in disaster situations. This too leaves farmers vulnerable to disasters.

There appears to be no awareness among farmers of livelihood diversification practices and of good practices for DRR to increase the resilience of existing farming systems and appropriate methods of land and natural resources. Despite the range of institutions under the Ministry of Agriculture involved in research and training relevant to agriculture, every organization performs its role in isolation with no proper coordination.

Thus, although there are various organizations implementing programs aimed at sustainable agriculture, the effectiveness of these programs is yet to be established.

Recommendations

In light of the weaknesses of the policies, the following suggestions are proposed to enhance and maintain a sustainable agricultural policy in the country.

Enhance Public Awareness about Disaster-Prone Lands and Time Periods

The authorities concerned should take measures to increase public awareness about disaster-prone areas, particularly residential and agricultural lands. After the Geographical Survey and Mines Bureau has properly identified particular areas as disaster-prone land, the government should classify them as such by prohibiting human settlements or agriculture. This strategy has been followed in Uganda and in New South Wales and should be considered in Sri Lanka because people hardly have access to those documents, such as the government’s gazettes (the authorized document that publishes the government’s special news, decisions, and job vacancies), especially at the village level. Thus, the local authority would do well to display some danger or early warning notices about potential disasters. This would enhance public awareness about the disaster-prone lands and get them to relocate.

Provide Proper Consultation for Farmers on Strategies for Resilient Agriculture

Farmers are the most vulnerable and immediately affected group in a disaster and hence should be well informed about prearrangements for disasters to reduce the adverse impact on agriculture. Hence, the authorities concerned could provide them with occasional consultations on how to reduce disaster risk. For example, farmers could be instructed about the appropriate crop selection for different climatic situations. They could also be informed about crop varieties, fast-growing corps, need for changing locations, timing of crop planting, and new cultivation methods. In particular, contingency crop planning (such as intercrop farming) and post harvesting techniques should be introduced to make the agricultural sector sustainable. Similar strategies are found in Madagascar, where a study was conducted by Harvey et al. (2014) on the extreme vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change and agricultural risk.

Introduce Livelihood Diversification Practices to Vulnerable Communities

Farmers in most cases live in a vicious cycle of poverty owing to regular shocks, low yield, low income, increased debt burden, and so on. As proneness to disaster risk is inevitable in any country, farmers’ livelihood activities need to be diversified and alternate employment opportunities provided. For example, some countries, such as Nepal and Bhutan, have introduced “agro tourism,” providing an additional source of income for farmers.

Preserve and Reawaken Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge and Technology

Sri Lanka possessed excellent eco-friendly agricultural technology and knowledge in the past. Considerable evidence is still found on sustainable agricultural practices in early Sri Lankan history. Farmers had sound indigenous agricultural knowledge that was robust even in disasters. Unfortunately, that implicit knowledge and agricultural technology used by the early farmers has deteriorated since the introduction of the plantation sector by the Europeans. However, the authorities concerned should act swiftly to revive and preserve the country’s traditional, indigenous agricultural knowledge in ensuring sustainability in this field.

Increased Access to Credit and Safety Nets

During disasters and following catastrophic events, such as those precipitated by extreme weather, many farmers depend on informal support gained from relations or acquaintances. As many formal safety nets are inaccessible to farmers or not immediately operational, farmers affected by disasters become more vulnerable and struggle to survive. It is therefore necessary to establish formal and working safety nets and also strengthen existing mechanisms such as the agricultural insurance scheme.

Encourage Farmers to Use Organic Fertilizers

To establish a system of sustainable agriculture calls for significantly increased compliance with eco-friendly practices and techniques. Because of the poor uptake in this field, farmers in the North Central province currently suffer from serious kidney issues as well. It is therefore necessary to encourage the use of sustainable agricultural practices and materials (such as fertilizers and pesticides), by promoting the use of organic fertilizers (as they are healthy and eco-friendly) and discouraging the use of chemical pesticides (as they damage species living in the soil and water).

Establish Proper Coordination among Agricultural Institutions

There are a plethora of agencies in the field of agriculture, but it is questionable whether they are sufficiently well coordinated. No institution, therefore, takes immediate and direct responsibility for anything that happens. Especially in times of disaster, the agricultural sector and the farmers are severely affected, and the media is abuzz with reports from farmers who complain about the unsatisfactory support provided by these institutions. Further, without proper coordination, public resources are wasted by the authorities through duplication of activities. Hence, proper coordination among the institutions is necessary for a sustainable agriculture policy.

Recognize Disaster Resilience as a Key Priority Area in Agriculture

Even though a comprehensive institutional mechanism for the agricultural sector exists in Sri Lanka, no institution makes disaster resilience one of its priorities. All the institutions have a separate set of functions and responsibilities and do not function beyond that scope. Currently, the government takes several ad hoc actions to make the community resilient when a disaster occurs, but no proper mechanism has been established. In light of all that has been discussed and recommended, it is essential that measures be taken toward disaster resilience, and thus the direct responsibility should be allocated to a separate or existing institution, as only then would such an institution perform and advance in this area.

Conclusion

Sri Lanka is a developing country with a comparatively large rural agricultural sector. Floods, earthquakes, and droughts are its most common natural disasters. People involved in the agriculture sector are the rural poor, who are adversely and frequently affected by natural disasters. The country’s agriculture policy does not adequately address, the adverse effects on agriculture due to disasters. This study has examined the strengths and weaknesses of the existing agricultural policy in the light of the concept of sustainable agriculture. The strengths of the existing policy are its emphasis on encouragement of the development of water control and water conservation techniques, agricultural credit and insurance, and strengthening of rural credit systems. However, these programs need remedial attention in the following areas: establishing the improved use of climate and weather information and forecasts; early warning about potential disasters; improving farmers’ awareness and introducing appropriate crop selection; cultivation methods; and new varieties of crops and quick-growing crops to sustain themselves in disasters.

The analysis has identified best practices used in other countries to strengthen the policy, recommending the following steps as a means toward this end: to enhance public awareness about disaster-prone lands and time periods, to instruct farmers on strategies for achieving agricultural resilience, to ensure proper coordination among agricultural institutions, to recognize disaster resilience as a key priority in the agricultural sector, and to encourage the use of organic fertilizers. These recommendations will be a useful input in the creation of future policy on sustainable agriculture in Sri Lanka.

Limitations of the Study

The study is based mainly on secondary data, and this constitutes one of its limitations. Further, studies should be conducted to assess organizational effectiveness on the basis of primary data, obtained from farmers and relevant agricultural institutions.

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