13.1 Areas of Specialization

A partial listing of areas of specialization follows:

• Abstract photography
• Advertising
• Aerial photography
• Allegorical photography
• Annual report photography
• Anthropological photography
• Archaeological photography
• Architectural photography
• Astrophotography
• Audiovisual communications
• Ballistics photography
• Biological photography
• Biomedical photography
• Botanical photography
• Catalog photography
• Closeup photography
• Commercial photography
• Communications photography
• Copying, photographic
• Corporate photography
• Dance photography
• Decoration photography
• Digital photography
• Display photography
• Documentary photography
• Editorial photography
• Electronic still photography
• Exhibition photography
• Existing light photography
• Expressive photography
• Fashion photography
• Figure photography
• Fine art photography
• Flash photography
• Food photography
• Forensic photography
• Furniture photography
• Geological photography
• Graphic arts photography
• High-speed photography
• Historical photography
• Holography
• Illustration photography
• Imaging science
• Industrial photography
• Infrared photography
• Instructional photography
• Landscape photography
• Legal photography
• Magazine photography
• Medical photography
• Microfilming
• Microphotography
• Military photography
• Nature photography
• Ophthalmic photography
• Panoramic photography
• Photogrammetry
• Photographic science
• Photoinstrumentation
• Photointerpretation
• Photojournalism
• Photomacrography
• Photometrology
• Photomicrography
• Photomural photography
• Pictorial photography
• Portrait photography
• Postcard photography
• Remote sensing
• Repeat photography
• Research photography
• Restoration photography
• Retouching
• School photography
• Scientific photography
• Soundwave photography
• Space photography
• Special-effects photography
• Sports photography
• Stereo photography
• Still-life photography
• Streak photography
• Surrealistic photography
• Surveillance photography
• Technical photography
• Theatrical photography
• Travel photography
• Underwater photography
• Wedding photography
• Yearbook photography

Consideration will be given to only a representative sample of these areas in this chapter.

13.2 Architecture

Probably no subject is better suited to the characteristics of the view camera than architecture. The inevitable vertical and horizontal lines require use of the tilt, swing, and shift adjustments for appropriate rendering. The stationary nature of the subject lends itself to the precise control of the arrangement and the cropping made possible by viewing the image on the large ground glass. Limitations in the placement of the camera imposed on the photographer by obstructions and the nature of the surroundings can often be dealt with satisfactorily by substituting a different focal length lens and by using the camera adjustments. Perspective, which is so important to architectural subjects, can be controlled by simultaneously changing the camera-to-subject distance and lens focal length.

Camera placement for architectural exteriors is determined by a combination of factors. Since the best position for two different factors, such as arrangement and lighting, may not be the same, compromises are often necessary. Form is best revealed by selecting a viewpoint that makes one side of the building visible in addition to the front, but with emphasis remaining on the front. Ideally, the lighting should also emphasize the front of the building, and the three-dimensional appearance of the building can be enhanced by having the side that is visible from the camera shaded (Figure 13-1). A top-view sketch of the building that is to be photographed, including a north arrow, is useful in determining the time of day when the lighting is best (Figure 13-2). Buildings that face east must be photographed during the morning hours to have the sun on the front, with the camera located in a northeasterly direction from the building to include the shadow side. South-facing buildings offer the most flexibility in camera placement, since they may be photographed during the morning from the left front and during the afternoon from the right front. Difficulty is often encountered with the lighting on north-facing buildings. If the sun does not illuminate the front of the building during the early morning or late afternoon hours, it may be advisable to wait for a lightly overcast day when the lighting ratio is lower.

A softer lighting is often more flattering to buildings surrounded by trees that cast distracting shadows with direct sunlight, and it may also produce an interesting mood effect (Figure 13-3). A popular dramatic lighting that puts more emphasis on mood and outline shape of the building than on form is obtained at dawn or dusk, when sufficient light remains in the sky to provide tonal separation between the building and the sky. This lighting is especially effective when the building’s interior illumination shows through the windows or when supplementary flood or flash illumination is used on the exterior (Figure 13-4). Since this procedure often requires two or more separate exposures, one for the sky and one for the supplementary lighting, an extremely sturdy tripod is required to avoid camera movement and out-of-register images. Dawn or dusk exposures can also be used to conceal the fact that a newly constructed building lacks landscaping, as occurred in the illustration in Figure 13-4.

Limitations are often imposed on the placement of the camera by poles, wires, signs, trees, and other obstructions. Unless the obstructions are close to the building, they may be eliminated from the photograph by placing the camera between the obstructions and the building, then using a shorter focal length wide-angle lens to provide a sufficiently large angle of view to include the entire building. The two photographs in Figure 13-5 show (1) the unsatisfactory inclusion of distracting objects when a camera with a normal focal length lens is placed at a distance that will produce the desired image size of the building and (2) elimination of the foreground objects by moving the camera closer to the building, substituting a shorter focal length lens to obtain the desired image size and angle of view. The same procedure can be followed intentionally to include an object in the foreground. If tree branches or other objects are desired in the foreground for compositional purposes, the camera is first set up to produce the desired effect, then the lens is selected that will produce an appropriate image size (Figure 13-6).

Assuming that the camera distance is not determined by obstructions or framing devices, the photographer is free to use this variable to control perspective. There are no rigid rules concerning when to use weak or strong perspective. Conservative architectural subjects tend to appear more attractive with normal to weak perspective, while some modern architecture lends itself to the more dramatic strong perspective (Figure 13-7). Such generalities should not be considered substitutes for a discerning eye, however. As the camera is moved closer to a building, strong perspective may become apparent in three ways: (1) near parts of the building, and objects such as shrubs in front of the building, appear inordinately large; (2) horizontal lines on the front and the side of the building converge rapidly; and (3) if the building has a sloping roof, as most homes do, the roof will appear shallow and may disappear entirely when the camera is extremely close (Figure 13-8). Swinging the camera back will alter the convergence of horizontal lines, but any decrease in the convergence of the lines on the front of the building will result in an increase in the convergence on the side of the house, and vice versa. Although swinging the back is not a substitute for changing the camera distance, it is a useful control. Since the front of the building is more important than the side, the swing should be used to obtain an appropriate effect on the front.

Vertical line control in architectural photography consists basically of keeping the back of the camera perpendicular to the ground. Necessary changes in the tilt angle of the plane of sharp focus must be achieved with the lens tilting adjustment (Figure 13-9). Six techniques are used for obtaining parallel vertical lines and correct image placement. Only the first needs to be used with buildings of moderate height with most view cameras.

1. Rising-falling front and back. The maximum vertical movement of the lens on 4 × 5-in. view cameras ranges from 1.1 to 7.9 in. Many of these cameras have the corresponding adjustment of the back also.

2. Off-center lens board. Mounting the lens off-center on a lens board will extend the possible displacement of the lens from the normal position. Off-center lens boards are useful even on cameras that have extensive rising-falling movements when bellows bind prevents short focal length lenses from being raised or lowered sufficiently. This type of lens board is not normally offered by the camera manufacturer, but some enterprising photographers have made them for their own use.

   

   Figure 13-9 The procedure for keeping the vertical lines parallel and obtaining an overall sharp image is to place the back perpendicular to the ground and tilt the lens forward. —Robert Golding
   

3. Tilt bed. Tilting the camera upward and then tilting the lens and back to a vertical position produces the same effect as the rising front but requires three adjustments rather than one. (Optical or mechanical limitations on the first three techniques may require consideration of the following two.)
4. Elevated camera position. Raising the entire camera lessens the amount the lens must be displaced from the normal position. When the height limitations of conventional tripods have been reached, a higher viewpoint can be obtained with a portable scaffold, a shooting platform on the roof of a car or truck, or in some situations by shooting from the roof or window of another building. Enterprising photographers also use vehicles, sometimes called cherry pickers, designed for warehouse, repair, or construction work, with platforms that can be raised to high positions.
5. Tilted easel. Although rectification by tilting the easel involves an additional darkroom operation, there are situations where the alternatives are less attractive with respect to effectiveness of the final photograph, convenience, time, and expense. Elongation or compression of the image should be avoided by making the appropriate choice of lens for the enlarger, unless such an effect is desired.
6. Digital image processing. Alteration of linear perspective is one of the many modifications that can be made in digital images with an appropriate computer digital-image-processing program.

A variety of focal length lenses should be available to the architectural photographer so that the camera viewpoint can be selected on the basis of factors that influence the effectiveness of the photograph rather than having the camera placement dictated by the image size produced with a given focal length lens. Emphasis should be on the shorter focal lengths, since the photographer is often forced to place the camera relatively close to the subject, especially with interior views. Wide-angle construction is essential for the shorter focal lengths and is strongly recommended even for the normal range due to the extensive use of camera adjustments.

Indoor architectural photography frequently involves lighting problems that the view camera copes with especially well. Inequalities in brightness of various areas, such as luminous ceilings that are relatively bright in comparison with the floor and walls, can be minimized with camera dodging. Black cards attached to a matte box or adjustable lens shade will hold back the light from the bright areas (Figure 13-10). Precise positioning of the cards is possible by examining the image on the ground glass, and varying the proportion of the total exposure time that the card is left in position controls the extent of dodging. A rigid camera and tripod are essential, and the card should be held in position in a way that will permit its removal with minimal danger of camera movement. Variations in blending between the dodged and undodged areas can be achieved easily with bellows-type lens attachments by altering the distance between the card and the lens. An alternative technique is to hold the card and move it during a time exposure, using markings on the lens attachment as a location guide.

Although the large exposure latitude of some films will record satisfactory detail with a straight camera exposure, permitting corrective burning-in or dodging during printing, there are advantages to the camera-dodging technique. Flare light from bright areas, for example, is less likely to degrade the image in other areas. Also, it is unnecessary to dodge each print when quantities of prints are to be made, and in any event, there is not always a subsequent printing step during which the correction can be made, as with reversal color transparencies made for direct viewing.

Interrupted exposures are frequently used for interior views when existing light and supplementary flood or flash light are combined. At night, the shutter can remain open while the interior is “painted” with a flood or multiple flashes are added with a conventional or an electronic-flash unit. If there is considerable existing light, as from windows during the daytime, the open-shutter method will result in overexposure of these areas. A more satisfactory method is to make one or more separate exposures at high shutter speeds with synchronized electronic-flash. Most of the light from the electronic flash is used, the same as with a time exposure, but the total exposure time for the existing light is reduced to the product of the shutter speed and the number of times the shutter is tripped. Thus, 20 exposures at 1/200 sec. are approximately equivalent to a single exposure at 1/10 sec. (The resulting densities may not be exactly the same due to differences in shutter efficiency at the two settings and the intermittency effect.) Equipment required for this type of work includes a synchronized shutter, fast shutter speeds (preferably up to 1/500 sec.), and a rigid camera and tripod.

Inclusion of people or other nonstationary objects in the scene eliminates the possibility of using the interrupted-exposure technique. Since variations in exposure time can be used to control the exposure to the daylight while having little or no effect on the electronic flash, a good balance between the indoor and the outdoor parts of the scene can be obtained with an appropriate choice of shutter speed (Figure 13-11).

A portfolio of 12 photographs of a variety of architectural subjects, made with a view camera by a husband-and-wife team, is shown in Figure 13-12.

13.3 Portraiture

View cameras are most valuable in portrait situations where the subject can be posed, rather than photographed candidly. These include a wide variety of portraits made in homes, offices, industries, schools, and other indoor and outdoor locations in addition to professional portrait studios. The word posed, however, need not be taken to mean static. Animated portraits used for advertising purposes, for example, are sometimes carefully posed, but electronic-flash units make it passible to “freeze” action (Figure 13-13). Lens and view camera manufacturers are giving attention to the need for quick and convenient control of the shutter and diaphragm, and photographers are using view cameras effectively with such difficult-to-control subjects as animals and young children.

Strong perspective is so destructive to the attractiveness of portraits that professional portrait photographers are careful to avoid it unless a caricature or unusual dramatic effect is appropriate for the specific use of the photograph. The only way strong perspective can be prevented is to keep the camera at a reasonably long distance from the subject. This makes a longer focal length lens desirable for portraiture.

The recommendations in Table 13-1 are for head-and-shoulder views. Somewhat shorter focal length lenses can be used satisfactorily for full-length and group portraits. Since the portrait photographer cannot always place the camera as far from the subject as desired, a variety of focal length lenses must be available. Short focal length wide-angle lenses are not thought of as portrait lenses, and they are rarely used for individual portraits, but they are called on to provide a stronger perspective, when appropriate, or the large angle of view is required to photograph groups where space is limited (Figures 13-14 and 13-15).

The additional problem of wide-angle distortion, which causes the heads near the edges of the photograph to be stretched out of shape, is sufficient reason to induce portrait photographers to reserve wide-angle lenses for special effects. Although abnormally weak perspective can result from use of long focal length lenses at long distances from the subject, this is much less of a problem than too-strong perspective. Comparison portraits made for dental or medical purposes, however, must be free of unusually strong or weak perspective. An appropriate perspective is especially important when making portraits of two or more people who are not at the same distance from the camera (Figure 13-16).

A concomitant benefit of using long focal length lenses and large film sizes for portraits is the relatively shallow depth of field produced. A shallow depth of field is considered desirable for head-and-shoulder portraits because it enhances the three-dimensional quality that the skilled photographer creates with the lighting. The plane of sharp focus should include the eyes and the front of the face (Figure 13-17). Slight adjustment of the swing and tilt of the lens is normally all that is required to obtain appropriate sharpness without stopping the lens down so far that the ear and back of the head become sharp.

A number of basic types of portrait lighting, determined mostly by the placement of the main or key light in relation to the subject, are commonly used for studio portraits. When a person is included in a photograph as an accessory rather than the main subject, such as a model for a fashion photograph, the conventional portrait lightings are commonly modified to emphasize the main subject of the photograph (Figure 13-18).

Although maintaining correct focus is no major problem with most portrait subjects, various techniques have been employed to minimize the time required behind the camera so the photographer can concentrate on the lighting, pose, and expression. A camera assistant is sometimes given responsibility for all work with the camera except tripping the shutter for many professional portrait photographers and advertising photographers who use models. Some photographers have found it easier to photograph young children

and animals by prefocusing the camera and then moving the subjects on a roller-mounted support to keep them at the correct distance. A narrow beam of light aimed at the subject from the side has also been used as a focus indicator. When used with electronic flash, the projected light on the subject is overpowered by the flash and is not visible on the portrait.

Devices now available to simplify focusing with view cameras include a noncocking universal shutter with a wide range of speeds that can be set from behind the camera, and an aperture control that stops the diaphragm down to a preselected f-number when the film holder is inserted and opens again when the holder is removed. Double-lens reflex view cameras can be assembled with some modular-type camera units, enabling the photographer to focus and compose with the film holder in position (Figure 13-19). When large film is not required but the photographer wants to use the view camera adjustments and lenses, a single-lens reflex camera body can be attached to the back of some view cameras (Figure 13-20). A divided rotating or sliding back that contains a roll-film holder and a ground glass is provided as an accessory for some view cameras for a more rapid transition from examining the image on the ground glass to exposing the film than by removing and attaching a roll-film back for every exposure.

High image definition, a desirable characteristic in many fields of photography, is not always considered desirable in portraits. Professional portrait photographers may own two or more lenses in the same focal length range because of differences in the quality of the images produced (Figure 13-21). Some portrait lenses are capable of producing a range of images from extremely soft focus to commercially sharp. The effect is usually controlled by the size of the diaphragm opening, so that both depth of field and image definition in the plane of sharpest focus increase as the lens is stopped down.

Vignetted photographs, in which the image gradually blends into a white surround, can be produced from conventional portrait negatives by exposing the prints through a hole in an opaque card. More sophisticated effects can be created by using a vignetter in front of the camera lens. Vignetters are available that can be attached to the camera and adjusted, while the photographer views the image on the ground glass, to obtain the desired blending effect. Tone of the surrounding area can be controlled by using different cards, ranging from light to dark, or by changing the illumination on a medium gray card (Figure 13-22). Translucent cutouts automatically adjust to changes in the tone of the background without using supplementary illumination on the vignetter and therefore can be used on matte boxes and adjustable lens hoods, provided they can be placed sufficiently far from the lens to produce the desired effect. Various types of special-effects portraits can be created in the darkroom, however, such as the sandwiched-negatives portrait in Figure 13-23.

Cameras used for portraits should be easily maneuvered with respect to height, tilt, distance of the camera from the subject, rotation of the film, focusing, and other camera adjustments (Figure 13-24). Since the tripod and the pan-tilt head perform several of these functions, it is just as important for these items to be well designed and constructed as it is for the camera. Features found on conventional nonportable studio portrait cameras are equaled or surpassed by the better portable view camera equipment. Tripod dollies overcome the inconvenient lack of mobility of conventional tripods (Figure 13-25), and the elevation ranges on good tripods exceed those on studio portrait cameras. Fully revolving backs are desirable because angular cropping in printing requires smaller images on the negatives, with a corresponding waste in negative area (Figure 13-26). Although it is seldom necessary to make drastic changes in the angle of the plane of sharp focus for portraits, it is better to make any required changes with the lens, so that image shape will not be affected. Studio portrait cameras do not normally have swing, tilt, rise, or shift adjustments on the lens.

A variety of formats are used for portrait photography—as small as 1 × 1½ in. and as large as 8 × 10 in., and occasionally larger. Professional photographers should be prepared to work with any of the standard sizes of film since situations are encountered that demand use of specific formats, and when photographers have a free choice, there are advantages in using different sizes for different purposes. The following four factors are often influential in the selection of film formats by portrait photographers:

1. Image quality. Although photographers desire every portrait they make to be as good as possible, it is not realistic to equate a portrait that will be reproduced full-page in a magazine with a passport portrait. Although the extra quality resulting from using 8 × 10-in. film over the smaller sizes may be wasted when the portrait is used for a small coarse-screen reproduction in a newspaper, the difference may be vital in situations that require the best possible quality.
   

   Figure 13-24 The view camera is as well suited to animal as to human portraits.—John Wowro
   

   

   Figure 13-25 Tripod dolly.
   

2. Retouching. Related to the image quality is the amount of re-touching necessary. Portraits of babies need less retouching than those of older people. Full-length and group portraits require less than closeups, and the final print size influences the amount and the quality of retouching needed. The difficulty in retouching so that it will not be apparent increases rapidly as negative size decreases and the corresponding magnification in printing increases.
3. Cost. Since film costs vary significantly with size, this factor must be considered in relation to the importance of the contributions of the larger film. The additional cost of the larger film is usually a low price to pay to be sure of obtaining the best possible image, but in some highly competitive, large-volume portrait businesses, where the profit per photograph is relatively small, the higher cost of the larger film becomes more important. Roll film can also result in considerable savings over larger sheet film where larger numbers of exposures may be made to obtain one photograph that will be used, as sometimes occurs with portraits made for advertising purposes.
4. Convenience. The important consideration here is between roll film and sheet film rather than different sizes of sheet film. The additional steps of loading and unloading film holders are of little consequence when the quantity of photographs made is moderate, but in large-volume situations, such as school portraiture, a bulk roll-film holder is much more convenient to use.

Many portrait photographers strive to develop a consistent and recognizable style with respect to posing, lighting, background treatment, composition, photographic technique, and other factors; and some specialize in, or develop a reputation for, photographing a certain classification of subjects such as men, women, children, celebrities, or fashion models. Such specialization may occur even within a portrait studio where the volume of business is large enough to justify having different photographers to photograph different types of subjects. Other portrait photographers prefer using an eclectic approach to achieve a more diversified result, such as the portfolio of portraits made by one photographer shown in Figure 13-27.

13.4 Catalog Photography

Fundamentally, catalog photographs serve as substitutes for the actual objects. A commonly employed psychological sales technique is to place the item in the prospective buyer’s hands, where the person has an opportunity to feel it, examine it closely, and, the seller hopes, to become accustomed to possessing it. Although photographs cannot appeal to the tactile senses, a good catalog photograph should reveal details clearly—often more clearly than when the actual object is examined—and it should make the item appear attractive. View cameras, operated by competent photographers, excel in satisfying these objectives.

Fairly rigid conventions have become established in the field of catalog photography with regard to camera viewpoint, perspective, depth of field, lighting, and a number of other factors, although it should be noted that some of the techniques used for dramatic effects in the field of advertising photography occasionally appear in catalog photographs. Normally, a camera viewpoint is selected that will reveal the three-dimensional nature of the subject. This is accomplished with architectural subjects by showing the front and one side of the building. Many catalog subjects are photographed from a high viewpoint, so that the front, one side, and the top of box-shaped objects are visible, with the emphasis placed on the most important plane (Figure 13-28). An exception to this convention is shown in Figure 13-29. Corresponding views are used for other than box-shaped objects, such as shoes or bicycles, with the exact camera position selected very carefully to emphasize the most attractive features.

Cylindrical cans are photographed from a position directly in front, so the label appears centered on the can, but from a position that shows the top (Figure 13-30). This convention is so strong that it is not abandoned even when the perspective is in conflict with the perspective of a background view showing the application of the product, as with the paint and the building in Figure 13-31. Flexibility in the placement of the camera is required to obtain an appropriate viewpoint for every type of subject. Since most catalog photographs are made in studios, large camera stands are practical. Some stands have counterbalances or auxiliary power so that the heaviest view cameras can be moved down to floor level and up to considerable heights directly over a subject quickly and with little effort.

Parallelism of vertical lines is as important for catalog photographs as for architectural photographs, but since the camera is normally higher than the subject, the required camera adjustments are a falling front and a rising back (Figure 13-32). Not all view cameras have rising backs, and the falling front adjustment is seldom as large as the rising front, so the more complicated procedure of tilting the bed down and then adjusting the tilt back and the tilt lens is frequently necessary. Horizontal subject lines are seldom rendered parallel except when the subject plane is photographed straight on. The swing back is used, however, to modify the rate of convergence of horizontal lines to obtain a natural appearance and occasionally to create the illusion that a product is longer or narrower than it actually is. Because the depth of field is shallower with small object distances, catalog and product photography commonly require the use of tilt and swing adjustments to control the angle of the plane of sharp focus (Figure 13-33).

The camera-to-subject distance has an important effect on perspective in addition to the variations that can be made with the tilt and swing back. As with portraiture, the relatively weak perspective obtained with longer focal length lenses at longer distances produces a natural appearance and is considered desirable in catalog photography (Figure 13-34). This requires a long bellows extension on the camera, especially when large images of small objects are required, and sufficient studio space to keep the camera at the proper distance when photographing large objects. Strong perspective, resulting from having the camera too close, is particularly disconcerting when the subject contains circular parts, as their images are distorted unless they are close to the center of the photograph.

View cameras that use the larger sizes of film have important desirable qualifications for catalog photography. Large negatives produce maximum image definition, which is critical in this field of photography. Even though photographs may be reduced considerably in size on the final reproduction, faithfulness of the images produced by photomechanical reproduction in the better catalogs is such that subtle differences in definition in the original photographs are important. Retouching has always been widely employed on catalog photographs to improve detail, increase tonal contrast between the subject and the background, and strengthen the appearance of form by adding highlights and shadows. This is done variously on the original negative or transparency, a photographic print, and during the photomechanical reproduction process. A large negative or transparency is essential when the retouching is done at that stage (Figure 13-35). The ease with which digital images can be retouched and otherwise modified with image-processing software programs and the other advantages of digital photography, discussed in Chapter 12, have attracted large numbers of catalog photographers to this medium.

Another advantage of the view camera for catalog photography is that the large ground glass used in conjunction with the large film aids the photographer in the operations that precede actual exposure of the film, such as focusing and checking parallel lines, perspective, lighting, depth of field, and the overall effect (Figure 13-36). Maintaining a consistent style with respect to these factors is important for the photographs appearing in the same catalog if an appearance of unity is to be achieved. Although ruled lines on the ground glass are invaluable for checking parallelism of vertical lines, some photographers find that the lines interfere with judging the arrangement and other aspects of the image. Using a removable transparent grid is one solution to this problem.

13.5 Landscape Photography

The photographer has little control over many problems involved in landscape photography. Scenes vary tremendously in appearance with lighting, weather, and seasonal changes. If any of these factors are not satisfactory, the photographer can do little except to wait. Photographers who specialize in this field of work have been known to visit a site periodically for months before finding the combination of factors that produced the desired effect. Timing is especially critical when making color landscape photographs involving the turning foliage in the autumn. A photograph that is missed either due to bad weather or lack of planning may require a wait of an entire year. Because of these problems, it is all the more important for the photographer to have a camera that is versatile, dependable, and capable of producing the best possible image.

The foreground and background of landscape scenes must be related perceptively to obtain an appropriate illusion of three dimensions and an effective design. This limitation on the placement of the camera requires a wide range of focal length lenses to obtain the desired image size and angle of view (Figures 13-37 and 13-38). A negative large enough to permit moderate cropping without an objectionable loss of image quality is also an advantage, since photographers cannot carry enough lenses to provide the exact focal length needed for every situation. Flexibility in lens focal length can be increased inexpensively with supplementary lenses, however, to obtain the in-between focal lengths. Loss of definition with supplementary lenses can be minimized by stopping the camera lens down when it is important to retain crisp detail, although soft-focus landscapes are often considered attractive.

It is not necessary to use trial and error in selecting the lens that will yield the desired image size and angle of view from a given location. Variable focal length optical viewfinders are frequently used for this purpose. The photographer can adjust the viewfinder to obtain the desired effect and then determine the focal length from the viewfinder setting. A less expensive method for determining the necessary focal length is to cut an opening corresponding to the film size being used in a piece of cardboard. Adjust the position of the card in front of one eye to obtain the desired framing (Figure 13-39). The distance from the card to the eye will be equal to the focal length of the lens that will produce the same angle of view on the film. This technique can be used with subjects other than landscapes, but it is

not accurate with closeup objects due to the differences between focal lengths and lens-to-film distances. A detachable focusing hood is a convenient substitute for a cutout card. With landscape scenes that allow more freedom in the placement of the camera, the best camera position for a given lens can be determined in the same way. Time and effort can be saved, and the photographer has a better opportunity to explore various viewpoints by scouting with a viewfinder or viewing frame than by setting up the tripod and view camera at each position under consideration.

Swing and tilt adjustments are not used as extensively in landscape photography as in some of the other photographic fields, but there are frequent opportunities for improving landscape photographs with the camera adjustments. It is not unusual to include the foreground to within a few feet of the camera and the horizon miles away. Tilting the lens forward (Figure 13-40) provides enough depth of field even at a large aperture if there are no tall objects in the foreground. Short focal length lenses need only slight tilting due to the large inherent depth of field and the short lens-to-film distance. Although the tilting back can be used for the same purpose, it is better to reserve this adjustment for perspective control. Failure to keep the back perpendicular to the ground will not be obvious with many landscapes, but converging or tilting vertical lines on buildings, trees, and other objects can be disturbing (Figure 13-41).

Sheet-film holders offer flexibility in the type of film used for landscape photography. A variety of effects can be produced with different films such as reversal and negative color films, panchromatic film with and without filters, high-contrast film, and infrared film (Figure 13-42).

Landscape photographers occasionally expose two or more different kinds of film on the same scene. An extra exposure may be made on reversal color film in situations requiring a color negative and print because the transparency provides a relatively quick color image for consultations with client, printer, and others. Both color and black-and-white film may be exposed to provide for different possible uses for the photograph, and using a variety of black-and-white film types and filters produces a series of prints, ranging from realistic to dramatic, from which to make the final choice. Even though landscapes are thought of as stationary subjects, a fast film may be needed to stop the movement of flying birds, windblown foliage, or other moving objects in the scene, in addition to minimizing the effect of any camera movement caused by the wind (Figure 13-43). On

the other hand, a slow film and longer exposure time may be required to achieve desired effects. Waterfalls and rippled lakes appear dramatically different at fast and slow shutter speeds, blurred images of moving branches are sometimes desired, and moving cars can be made to disappear with long exposure times (Figure 13-44). Use of neutral-density filters will extend the possible range of exposure times. The addition of a center of interest in the form of people or animals to landscape scenes, such as the horses in Figure 13-45, will commonly have a dramatic impact on the resulting photographs.

13.6 Advertising Photography

Successful advertising photographs are those that induce the viewer to purchase the products or services advertised. To do this, the photographs must first catch the eyes of the potential consumers and then convince them that the products are both necessary and desirable. This is a highly competitive field in which the advertiser is competing not only with other producers of the same product but with all other products for which consumers may spend their money. As a result, the demands made on the advertising photographer with respect to ideas and craftsmanship are great. At the top level, where large amounts of money are spent on nationwide advertising campaigns, photographers invest time, energy, and money generously in an effort to make each photograph as effective as possible. View cameras have long dominated this field, with the larger sizes being used extensively. In the field of photography identified as advertising illustration, it is sometimes more important to establish a mood, imply a message, or convey a concept than to feature the product being advertised. Selected manufacturing parts were used instead of the end product for the photograph in Figure 13-46, which was used by the manufacturer in an advertising brochure.

Although a wide variety of techniques are used in an effort to make distinctive advertising photographs, a relatively large proportion are straightforward, depending on models, props, arrangement, lighting, and photographic quality to produce an effect that will appeal to the viewer (Figure 13-47). The versatility of view cameras, however, makes possible the creation of many special effects when more dramatic advertising photographs are required.

13.7 Exhibition Photography

Certain types of photographs, including many personal portrait, legal, and technical photographs, are intended to be viewed by a relatively small number of people, and quantities of record photographs are placed in files and seldom, if ever, used. At the other extreme are the photographs reproduced in vast quantities in magazines, newspapers, books, and on television. Between these two extremes is a loosely defined category of exhibition photography, in which original photographs rather than photomechanical reproductions are used, but they are displayed in museums, lobbies, and other business and public places where they can be seen by moderately large numbers of people. Since outstanding photographic quality is required in this field, view cameras are commonly used.

One of the more distinctive series of exhibition photographs in recent years has been the Kodak Colorama photographs displayed in New York City’s Grand Central Terminal, with smaller versions in airport terminals and other locations. By making color transparency prints and illuminating them brilliantly from the rear, more vivid images result than can be obtained with reflection prints. The huge Colorama in Grand Central Terminal measured 18 × 60 ft. The early Coloramas were all made with specially designed view cameras that produced usable negative areas of 4⅞ × 16¼ in. Even with this large negative, it was necessary to magnify the image 44 times in printing. With the improvements made in film and lenses over the years, it became possible to use smaller-format cameras for such large photographs. The photograph of the city skyline in Figure 13-60 was made on Kodak Ektachrome slide film, and the photograph of the historic Canal House in Figure 13-61 was made with an 8 × 10-in. view camera on negative color film. Both scenes contained vertical

lines that were rendered parallel in the photographs by keeping the film plane perpendicular to the ground.

A different procedure was used to photograph the restored historical area near the High Falls on the Genesee River in Rochester, New York, shown in Figure 13-62. Advance arrangements were made with the Genesee Valley Antique Car Society to provide five antique cars and for interior lights to be turned on in the restored buildings. The exterior lighting on the buildings was provided by some 200 volunteer photographers—RIT students, faculty members, and friends—who brought handheld electronic-flash units and fired them during the 90-sec. exposure. Each year a different location is selected for a “Big Shot” photograph.

Large, framed reflection prints are also widely used for exhibition purposes. The term decoration photography was introduced in the mid-1950s to emphasize that such photographs could be displayed appropriately in a variety of locations, including public buildings, business offices, hotel lobbies and rooms, and private homes, as distinct from galleries. The photograph in Figure 13-63 is an example of an image that has been used successfully for such purposes.

When there is a need for larger quantities of exhibition-type photographs than can be produced economically as original photographs, a feasible alternative is to make photomechanical reproductions. An example of an exhibition-type photograph reproduced in quantity in this way for a poster is shown in Figure 13-64.

13.8 Expressive Photography

The distinguishing characteristic of expressive photographs is that such photographs are made to satisfy the photographer, as distinct from taking photographs to satisfy an art director, editor, customer, or other person who is willing to pay the photographer to make a photograph for a specific use (Figure 13-65). This does not mean that expressive photographs are never used for commercial purposes, but that they are made for other reasons. Many factors can motivate photographers to take photographs primarily for themselves, including the satisfaction derived from creating images they consider to be meaningful. Eight expressive photographs made by one photographer are shown in Figure 13-66.

Whereas many expressive photographs are made to create satisfying artistic images, others are made to create visual images that communicate messages of a different nature to viewers, commonly unrelated to beauty.

13.9 Photocopying

A surprisingly large proportion of photographic work consists of making reproductions of two-dimensional subjects. The most widely used application of photocopying is to obtain multiple images that can be viewed independently by two or more people. Other reasons for making photocopies are to change the scale, to change the tonal rendering, and to transfer the image to a different type of material. Changes in scale of the original range from microphotography, where an entire book is reproduced on a small card, to the enlargement of advertising layouts to billboard proportions. Changes in tone and color may be introduced in copying for aesthetic reasons, functional reasons (as in converting continuous-tone originals into half-tone negatives for photomechanical reproduction), or informational purposes (as in certain types of industrial and crime-detection photography). Examples of transferring images to other materials range from making plastic tabletops with a photographic wood-grain image to printed circuits, where plating and etching processes are used to add or remove metal selectively (Figure 13-67).

Obtaining maximum image definition is usually an important requirement of photocopying work. Unfortunately, it is not possible to use an optical system to form an image without introducing some degradation. This loss of definition can be prevented when the nature of the original and the requirements are such that a contact copy can be made either by exposing through the transparent or translucent original or by exposing through the base of the sensitized material using the reflex principle. The use of view cameras, with their capacity for making large negatives, frequently eliminates the need for an enlarger and second optical system. Attention must be given to several other factors to obtain maximum definition when photocopying. Process lenses are designed specifically for this type of use, and they produce significantly superior results. Focusing must be exact, which implies the use of a precision camera and focusing with a magnifier. Freedom from vibration or movement during the exposure is essential. The choice of the film-developer combination is also important, especially when the negative must be enlarged.

Uniform glare-free illumination is considered standard for photocopying, although control over the lighting is necessary for situations

where texture, emphasis, or other special effects are appropriate. Since uniformity of illumination at the film plane depends on the lens in addition to the lighting distribution on the original, the longer focal length process lenses are recommended. Other view camera features find frequent application in photocopying work. The long bellows and interchangeable lenses are needed to produce a wide range of image sizes. A variety of film sizes and emulsion types can be used in sheet-film holders, and roll-film backs can be added for mass production. The lateral and rising-falling movements simplify positioning the image without affecting image shape, and the ground glass allows precise measurement of image size. Special camera stands and copy easels that automatically maintain alignment between the film and the original are recommended where the volume of photocopying is large.

13.10 Technical Photography

Technical photography is a broad field that includes many different types of pictures and uses, but the use of photography to provide information for a scientific or technical purpose (as in experimental research) and the use of technical photographic equipment or processes to obtain information that could not be obtained with conventional photography (such as infrared photography) are appropriate examples (Figure 13-68).

Photography is employed in research work for a variety of reasons, including obtaining information that cannot be seen or obtained as satisfactorily in other ways, keeping a visual notebook for future reference, and communicating with others for scientific or public-relations purposes.

The uses of photography to obtain research information seem to be limited only by the ingenuity of the photographer. Some of the more widely used techniques follow:

• Rapidly moving objects, or events that last too short a time for the eye to see or to study, such as the breaking “boule” in Figure 13-69, can often be recorded photographically.
• Colored and polarizing filters, photographic emulsions sensitized to selected regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and high-contrast emulsions can often reveal detail that is not visible.
• Whereas the eye can record only instantaneous impressions (with fractions-of-a-second prolongation due to the persistence-of-vision phenomenon), a camera shutter can be left open for varying lengths of time to record a trace of an entire event, as in time-motion studies.
• A camera has unlimited patience to wait for an unpredictable event to occur, as in nature-study photographs.
• A camera can be placed in locations normally inaccessible to humans due to high or low temperature, limited space, radioactivity, and the like.
• By making a time exposure, film can accumulate illumination that is too weak to form a satisfactory visible image, as in the study of phosphorescence.
• Two or more synchronized cameras can simultaneously record different views of a subject or different but related events.
• Photographs are capable of compressing time so that side-by-side comparisons can be made of widely separated events or an object before and after treatment.
• The versatile view camera is being looked upon as an indispensable tool by many research workers. The almost-instantaneous feedback of information, when used with instant-picture films, saves many hours of valuable time (Figure 13-70).