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Part IV: Identity, Multiculturalism, and Intercultural Competence
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Part IV: Identity, Multiculturalism, and Intercultural Competence
by Jing Yin, Yoshitaka Miike, Molefi Kete Asante
The Global Intercultural Communication Reader, 2e, 2nd Edition
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Dedication: In Honor of Dr. Everett M. Rogers (1931–2004)
Acknowledgments
Introduction: New Directions for Intercultural Communication Research
Part I: The Emergence and Evolution of Intercultural Communication
1. Notes in the History of Intercultural Communication: The Foreign Service Institute and the Mandate for Intercultural Training
Background: The Foreign Service Institute
Microcultural Analysis
Proxemics, Time, Paralanguage, Kinesics
The Linguistic Model
Culture and Communication
Conclusion
Notes
References
2. The Evolution of International Communication as a Field of Study: A Personal Reflection
The 1960s and the Birth of a Field of Study: International Communications
International Communications as a Field of Study Within International Relations
World War II: Systems Theory and the Evolution of International Communications
Post-World War II
Notes
3. The Centrality of Culture in the 20th and 21st Centuries
Research on Intercultural Communication: 1980–1990
Research on Intercultural Communication: 2006–2011
Intercultural Communication in the 20th and 21st Centuries: A Cultural Imperative
An Intracultural Communication Research Agenda for the Future
Conclusion: Back to the Future
Notes
References
4. Theories of Culture and Communication
Culture
Form
Function
Locus
Communication
Form and Function
Locus
Research Goals
Relationship of Culture and Communication
Implications for Acculturation
Traditional
Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)
Ethnography of Communication
Conclusion
References
5. Mapping Cultural Communication Research: 1960s to the Present
Shifting Terminology
Understanding Culture
Ethnicity and Identity
Approach to Present Study
General Trends and Patterns
Review of Literature Related to the Four Modes of Inquiry
Intracultural
Intercultural
Cross-Cultural
Critical Cultural
Conclusion and Implications
References
6. Sojourning Through Intercultural Communication: A Retrospective
A Sense of Direction
Grasping What Lies Beyond the Reach
Where the Known Meets the Other
Responsiveness to What We Cannot Control
Conclusion
Author’s Note
References
Part II: Issues and Challenges in Cross-Cultural and Intercultural Inquiry
7. Afrocentricity: Toward a New Understanding of African Thought in the World
The African Origin of Philosophy
Earliest African Philosophers
Characteristics of Afrocentricity
(1). An Intense Interest in Psychological Location as Determined by Symbols, Motifs, Rituals, and Signs
(2). A Commitment to Finding the Subject-Place of Africans in any Social, Political, Economic, or Religious Phenomenon With Implications for Questions of Sex, Gender, and Class
(3). A Defense of African Cultural Elements as Historically Valid in the Context of Art, Music, and Literature
(4). A Celebration of “Centeredness” and Agency and a Commitment to Lexical Refinement That Eliminates Pejoratives About Africans or Other People
(5). A Powerful Imperative From Historical Sources to Revise the Collective Text of African People
Racism and the Question of Race
Author’s Note
References
8. The Asiacentric Turn in Asian Communication Studies: Shifting Paradigms and Changing Perspectives
Introduction: Afrocentricity as the Model of Asiacentricity
Asiacentricity and the Power of Communication
Asiacentricity and the Importance of Cultural Traditions
Cultural Tradition in Kawaida Perspective
Culture as Text and Culture as Theory
Cultural Center and Cultural Rootedness
Asiacentricity and Intercultural Learning
Asiacentricity and the Issue of Cultural Ecology
Asiacentricity and the Question of Criticality
Conclusion: “Outwardly, Be Open; Inwardly, Be Deep”
Author’s Note
Notes
References
9. Indigenous and Authentic: Hawaiian Epistemology and the Triangulation of Meaning
Hawaiian Epistemology: The Specifics of Universality
1. Spirituality and Knowing: The Cultural Context of Knowledge
2. That Which Feeds: Physical Place and Knowing
3. The Cultural Nature of the Senses: Expanding Our Ideas of Empiricism
4. Relationship and Knowledge: Self Through Other
5. Utility and Knowledge: Ideas of Wealth and Usefulness
6. Words and Knowledge: Causality in Language
7. The Body/Mind Question: The Illusion of Separation
Hawaiian Epistemology: Implications for Research
The Triangulation of Meaning: Body, Mind and Spirit
The Number Three
Reaching for Wholeness
Body: The Gross and Physical Knowing of Life—First Point in the Triangulation of Meaning
Mind: The Subtle and Subjective Knowing of Life—Second Point in the Triangulation of Meaning
Spirit: The Causative and Mystical Knowing of Life—Third Point in the Triangulation of Meaning
Ha’ina mai ka puana: Thus Ends My Story
Author’s Note
Notes
References
10. The Four Seasons of Ethnography: A Creation-Centered Ontology for Ethnography
Background
Birth of the Four Seasons as Ontology for Ethnography
Ontology and Methodology
Guiding Ideals of the “Received View” of Ethnography
Received Guiding Ideal #1: Opportunism
Received Guiding Ideal #2: Independence of Researcher
Guiding Ideal #3: Entitlement
Guiding Ideal #4: Primacy of Rationality
Guiding Ideals of the Four Seasons
Four Seasons Guiding Ideal #1: Natural Cycles (Appropriateness)
Four Seasons Guiding Ideal #2: Interdependence of All Things (Awareness)
Four Seasons Guiding Ideal #3: Preparedness
Four Seasons Guiding Ideal #4: Harmony/Balance (Discipline)
The Nature of the Four Seasons
Spring
Summer
Fall
Winter
Afterward
Notes
References
11. Encounters in the Third Space: Links Between Intercultural Communication Theories and Postcolonial Approaches
The Challenge of Intercultural Communication
The Rise of Intercultural Communication Theories in the United States
Silent Languages and Hidden Differences: The Approach of Edward T. Hall
Towards a Critique of Intercultural Communication Theory
A Plea for the Integration of Postcolonial Insights Into Intercultural Communication Theories?
Problems With Postcolonial Theory
The Concept of Transdifference—A Way Out of the Dilemma?
Notes
12. Thinking Dialectically About Culture and Communication
Four Paradigms
Functionalist Paradigm
Interpretive Paradigm
Critical Humanist Paradigm
Critical Structuralist Paradigm
Beyond the Paradigms
Toward a Dialectical Perspective
A Dialectical Approach to Studying Intercultural Interaction
Cultural–Individual Dialectic
Personal/Social–Contextual Dialectic
Differences–Similarities Dialectic
Static–Dynamic Dialectic
Present-Future/History-Past Dialectic
Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic
Dialectical Intersections
Conclusion
Notes
References
Part III: Cultural Wisdom and Communication Practices in Context
13. Nommo, Kawaida, and Communicative Practice: Bringing Good Into the World
Scope and Framework
Tradition and Themes
Nommo and the Reaffirmation of the 1960s: Sociohistorical Setting
Nommo, the Creative Word
The Asantean Initiative
Kawaida and the Concept of Mdw Nfr
Excursus: Revisiting Aristotle
Return to the Kemetic Paradigm
Classical African Rhetoric as Communal and Ethical Practice
The Dignity and Rights of the Human Person
The Well-Being and Flourishing of Community
The Integrity and Value of the Environment
The Reciprocal Solidarity and Cooperation of Humanity
References
14. Ubuntu in South Africa: A Sociolinguistic Perspective to a Pan-African Concept
Ubuntu: A Pan-African Concept
Some Core Values of Ubuntu
Ubuntu as Communalism
Ubuntu as Interdependence
Ubuntu, Culture and the Business Sector in South Africa
Ubuntu and Culture
Ubuntu and the Business Sector
Disseminating Ubuntu in the Business Sector
Ubuntu in Other Cultures
Conclusion
References
15. Communication and Cultural Settings: An Islamic Perspective
Introduction
The Islamic World
Definition of Terms
Communication and Ethics: Their Boundaries and Frontiers
Tabligh and Ethical Thinking and Practices in Islamic Societies
The Theory of Tawhid
The Doctrine of Responsibility, Guidance, and Action
Tabligh and the Concept of Community
The Principle of Taqwa
Conclusion
Notes
16. The Functions of Silence in India: Implications for Intercultural Communication Research
Functions of Silence in India
Functions of Silence at the Individual Level
Functions of Silence at the Interpersonal Level
Functions of Silence at the Public Level
Implications for Intercultural Communication Research
References
17. Language and Words: Communication in the Analects of Confucius
Confucian Philosophy as Key to Asian Communication—Current Interpretations
Issues of Words and Speaking in the Analects
Words Define and Reflect Moral Development
Beautiful Words Lacking Substance Are Blameworthy
Actions Are More Important than Words
Appropriate Speaking Relies on Rules of Propriety
Rethinking Attitudes Toward Language and Words in Confucian Societies
Recapturing the Confucian Vision
Problems of Current Interpretation
Epilogue
Notes
References
18. The Two Faces of Chinese Communication
Introduction
The First Face of Chinese Communication
The Other Face of Chinese Communication
Comments and Conclusion
References
Part IV: Identity, Multiculturalism, and Intercultural Competence
19. Popular Culture and Public Imaginary: Disney vs. Chinese Stories of Mulan
Theory of Articulation and Popular Culture Texts
Disney’s Mulan: Individualism as Universal
Chinese Culture as Oriental Despotism
Feminism as Racial Hierarchy
The Ballad of Mulan: A Counter Narrative
Principles of Filial Piety (孝) and Loyalty (忠)
Collectivistic Feminism
Concluding Remarks
References
20. The Mexican Diaspora: A Critical Examination of Signifiers
The Mexican Diaspora
Chicano, Latino, Hispanic, Mexicano: The Lexicology
Mexican/Mexicano
Mexican American
Chicano/a
Hispanic
Latino
Conclusion
Signifiers and Identity: Implications for Intercultural Communication
Note
References
21. The Masculine–Feminine Construct in Cross-Cultural Research: The Emergence of a Transcendent Global Culture
Transcending Dichotomies, Melting Divides: A Case Study as a Point of Departure
Preview
Mediated Communication, Gender Roles, and Sexuality
The Pervasiveness of Media
Masculine and Feminine Images in Film
Masculine and Feminine Representations Through Music
Masculinity and Femininity on Social Networking Sites
The Masculine–Feminine Construct in Cross-Cultural Communication Research
A Global Transformation of Gender and Sexual Roles
Global Television–Internet Franchises
Global Values of These Franchises in Terms of Sexuality
Changing Conceptions of Sexuality: The Emergence of Androgyny
Conclusion
References
22. Encounters With the “Other”: Personal Notes for a Reconceptualization of Intercultural Communication Competence
Intercultural Communication as Encounters With the “Other”
Components of Intercultural Communication Competence
Critical Issues for a Reconceptualization of Intercultural Communication Competence
Moving Beyond Hegemonic Conceptions of Culture in Intercultural Communication
Putting Power Back Into Intercultural Communication
Reclaiming Ideology in Intercultural Communication Theory and Research
Remembering History in Intercultural Communication
The Centrality of Culture in Intercultural Communication Theory and Research
“Other” Ways of Viewing Competence
Notes
References
23. Applying a Critical Metatheoretical Approach to Intercultural Relations: The Case of U.S.–Japanese Communication
Comparing CD and Critical Approaches to Intercultural Communication
Notion of Culture
Similarity/Difference
Relations of Power
Historical Context
Communication Competence
Personal Experience as Evidence
Taking Up the White Man’s Burden
The Well-Worn Paths of “English Conversation”
Role Models and Catalysts
On Being a Racial Minority in Japan: Lessons From History
A Power Shift in U.S.–Japanese Relations
Conclusion: Intercultural Communication in a Postcolonial World
References
24. Superheroes in Shanghai: Constructing Transnational Western Men’s Identities
Introduction
Theoretical Frameworks and Contextualizing Literature
Method, Context and Participants
Becoming Superheroes
Zero to Hero
‘We Are Interchangeable’
Conflicting Identities
Men Behaving Badly
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
25. Beyond Multicultural Man: Complexities of Identity
Review of Literature
Cross-Cultural Differences in the Concept of Self
African American Views of the Self
Gender Differences in the Concept of Self
Postmodern Views of Identity
Complexities of Identity
Interviews With Multicultural People
Research Methodology
Four Women
Analysis of Interviews and Essays
Experiences With Sexism, Racism, Prejudice and Stereotyping
Shifting Identities According to Context
Having Deep Roots
Commitment to Others
An Alternative Image
Further Considerations
Marginality
In-Betweenness
Uniqueness
Commitment to Community Action
Conclusion
References
26. Moving the Discourse on Identities in Intercultural Communication: Structure, Culture, and Resignifications
A Critique of Identity Theorizing in Intercultural Communication Research
Critical Articulations: Performativity, Resignifications, and Translation
Sample Case Studies
Identity as Performative
Identity as Double-Sided, Resignifiable, and Unforeclosed
Identity in Dynamic Translation
Conclusion
Notes
References
Part V: Globalization and Ethical Issues in Intercultural Relations
27. Ethnic Discourse and the New World Dysorder: A Communitarian Perspective
Globalism: Hegemonic Versus Communitarian
Regionalism: Exclusionary Versus Inclusionary
Nationalism: Totalitarian-Aggressive Versus Democratic-Benign
Localism: Parochial Versus Liberal
Spiritualism: Fundamentalist Versus Ecumenical
Author’s Note
Notes
References
28. The Hegemony of English and Strategies for Linguistic Pluralism: Proposing the Ecology of Language Paradigm
Dominance of English as Neocolonialism
Linguistic and Communicative Inequality
Linguistic Discrimination and Social Inequality
Colonization of the Consciousness
Dominance of English as Globalism
Globalization as Anglo-Americanization
Globalization as Transnationalization
Globalization as Commercialization
The Ecology of Language as Counterstrategy of the Hegemony of English
The Right to Language
Equality in Communication
Multilingualism and Multiculturalism
Implication of the Ecology of Language Paradigm
Conclusion
References
29. Languages and Tribal Sovereignty: Whose Language Is It Anyway?
Spanish–English Bilingual Programs
The Pueblo Indian People
Tribal Sovereignty
A Brief History
The Role of Language
Language Loss in Pueblo Communities
Language Teaching Among the Pueblos
Indigenous Languages in the Schools
Control Issues
Principles
Conclusion
Notes
References
30. Development and Communication in Sri Lanka: A Buddhist Approach
The Sri Lankan Context of Development and Communication
The Sarvodaya Movement, Buddhist Ethics, and Development
The Buddhist Vision of Social Order and Self-Transformation
Self-Reliance as an Approach to Development and Communication
A Buddhist Paradigm of Development and Communication
Four Approaches to Development and Communication
Conclusions
Author’s Note
References
31. Global Village vs. Gandhian Villages: A Viable Vision
Introduction
Takers vs. Leavers
Committed to the Harijans
Against the System, Not Against the Person
Gandhi’s Critique of Technological Culture: The Common Salt
The Decisive Salt Struggle
Curse of Industrialization
Gandhian Vision of Village Economy: The Charkha
The Ideal: Simple Village Life
Rural Economics
Transforming Villages
The Goal: Basic Necessities for All
Conclusion: Viable vs. Vicious Village
Notes
32. The Context of Dialogue: Globalization and Diversity
Globalization and the Human Condition
From Westernization and Modernization to Globalization
Local Awareness, Primordial Ties and Identity
Dialogue as Mutual Learning
Diversity and Community
Common Values
Humanity, Reciprocity and Trust
Toward a Global Ethic
Wisdom
Appendix: Intercultural Communication as a Field of Study: A Selected Bibliography of Theory and Research
Notes on Contributors
Permissions
Index
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Identity, Multiculturalism, and Intercultural Competence
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