Abhedananda, S. 250
acculturation 43, 68–71, 80–81, 85–86
Adler, Nancy 411
Adler, Peter 10, 393–395, 400–401, 403, 404, 405–407, 408–412
Africa 10, 53, 93, 508; African rhetoric 211–225; cross-cultural communication research 86, 87; cultural hybridity 120–121; culture-centricity 126; ethics 237; Islam 240; national liberation movements 431; origins of philosophy 102–104; regionalism 436; research 50, 52; traditional religion 503; ubuntu 226–236; see also Afrocentricity
African Americans 37, 94, 108–109, 368, 404, 418; concept of the self 397–398; interpretive research 195; Kawaida 116; relations with Korean Americans 348–349; representations of 352; rhetoric 211–212, 213, 214–216
Afrocentricity 8, 85, 94, 101–110, 153, 273; African philosophy 102–104; centering 120; characteristics of 104–108; critical theories 123; cross-cultural communication 86; cultural hybridity 120; intercultural learning 118; Karenga on 111; Kawaida 116; as model for Asiacentricity 112; nommo 9, 215–216
agency: Afrocentricity 106, 107; articulation 288; centeredness 119, 120; culture as nationality 345, 346; intercultural communication competence 351
Akhenaten 104
Alcoff, L. M. 347
Algeria 441
Allen, Ralph K. 84
Altheide, D. L. 155
Aluli-Meyer, Manulani 8, 128n4, 134–151
Amenemhat 104
Amenemope 104
Amenhotep 104
American University, Washington D.C. 35–36, 37–38, 40, 42
Americanization 445, 449, 450, 451, 452, 498, 499
Amira de la Garza, Sarah 8, 128n4, 134, 151–173
Ammon, U. 446
Analects (Confucius) 124, 255, 256, 258–268, 270n1, 270n2, 271n6, 299
Anderson, Benedict 345
Andrews, C. F. 484
androgyny 9, 321, 323, 324, 331
Anglo-Americanization 445, 450
anthropology 18–19, 39–40, 359–360; cultural systems 23; Foreign Service Institute 18, 22, 27–28; life histories 32n42
Anzaldúa, Gloria 310
apartheid 226, 230–231, 233, 234, 440
Arab League 436
Aristotle 143, 199, 218–219, 475
Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) 21, 30n17
art 106
articulation 287–288, 289, 301, 419
Asante, Molefi Kete 1–14, 93, 95, 101–110, 151, 175, 273, 397; African culture 4; African rhetoric 222; Afrocentricity 8, 112, 116, 118, 153; Black speakers 214; centering 119–120, 121; critical theories 123; cultural superiority 122–123; hierarchical discourse 127n2; location 213; multicultural literacy 287, 301; nommo 215–216; power 5, 6, 113, 115
Asia 10, 93, 96, 237, 368; Confucianism 9, 255–272; cross-cultural communication 87; cross-cultural communication research 86; cultural hybridity 121; Islam 243; national liberation movements 431; regionalism 436; research 52; silence 248; see also Confucianism; East Asia
Asiacentricity 8, 95, 111–133, 273–274; Afrocentricity as model for 112; criticality 123–126; cross-cultural communication 86; cultural centering and rootedness 117–118; cultural ecology 120–123; culture as text and theory 116–117; intercultural learning 118–120; Kawaida perspective 115–116; power of communication 112–115
Asian Americans 37, 289, 341, 350–351
assimilation 43
Assmann, Jan 223
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 436, 437
Asuncion-Landé, Nobleza 93
atomic bombing of Japan 447
Atsmon, Y. 324
attitudes 344
Atwater, Deborah 93
authenticity 97, 286, 291, 300–301, 377, 389
Averroes 241
Avicenna 241
Babbili, Anantha Sudhaker 125–126
Bahro, Rudolf 431
Bakhtin, M. 78
Balagangadara, S. N. 396, 409–410
Ballad of Mulan 286, 294–300, 301
Barnlund, Dean C. 1, 7, 194, 358, 408, 411
Barthes, R. 293
Bateson, Gregory 29n3
behavior 37
behaviorism 39
Belenky, M. J. 398
belief systems theory 39
Bell, M. W. 327
Bell, V. 422
Benedict, Ruth 29n3, 39, 46n12, 46n13, 54, 83
Bennett, Janet 394, 395, 405, 410, 411
Bennett, Milton J. 360, 394–397, 403, 404, 409, 410, 411
Bhabha, Homi 128n6, 174, 182, 183–184, 186, 361
bian 279
Bible 443
bilingual education programs 10, 457, 458–459, 464
binary systems 143
Birdwhistell, Ray L. 25, 26, 27, 31n35
Black, Jack 325
Black people 102, 106, 108; Black speakers 214; intracultural communication 82, 83; see also African Americans
Blake, Cecil A. 5
Bloomfield, Leonard 28
Blum Martinez, Rebecca 10, 457–466
body: mind/body dichotomy 140–141, 157–158; triangulation of meaning 142, 144, 145
Bok, Sissela 504
Bolin, G. 301
Bond, Michael H. 256
Book of Odes 262
border-crossing 376
Bosnia 438
Boswell, W. P. 20
Boulding, Kenneth 39
Bourdieu, Pierre 195
Boy George 336
Boyarin, D. 426
Bradford, Lisa 83
Braithwaite, Charles A. 194
Brazil 94
Brennan, E. 333
Brennen, B. 348
Bronfenbrenner, Urie 39
Brown, H. D. 340
Bruneau, Thomas J. 249
Bruner, Edward 377
Buddha, Siddartha 104, 250, 470–471
Buddhism 126, 496–497, 498, 503, 504; communication theory 128n8; ethics 124; Sri Lanka 10, 467–479; sympathy 509
Burton-Carvajal, J. 290
Bush, George W. 43
business sector 29, 32n41, 38, 82–83, 231–233, 348
capitalism 41, 126, 475; American values 45; commercialization 451; Diffusion of English Paradigm 452; English language 449; globalism 433, 434; greed 435; Mulan 290; NWICO Debate 44; triumph of 498
Capra, F. 153
Carbaugh, Donal 62, 64, 66, 67–68, 194, 201
Cargile, Aaron 96
centering 107, 111, 117, 118, 119–120, 121, 122, 126
Chang, Hui-Ching 9, 124, 255–272, 275
Chen, Guo-Ming 2, 9, 10, 76, 93, 94, 112, 117, 175, 270n4, 273–282; Asiacentricity 274; cultural hybridity 121–122; cultural tradition 124; intercultural communication competence 342; similarities 114
Chen, Ling 93
Chen, Victoria 61
Chen, Vivian 275
Chen Zhijiang 295
Chesebro, James W. 9, 301, 321–338, 346
Chesterton, G. K. 480
Chicanos 196, 306, 307, 308–309, 310, 312–313, 315, 316–317
chih 261
children 45
Chin, Christine B. N. 128n9
China 9, 94, 95, 128n7, 418, 438; Asiacentricity 118; Ballad of Mulan 286, 294–300; Buddhism 503; collectivism 257; concept of the self 396–397; conflict avoidance 268; cultural hybridity 121; emic concepts 178; fu-bian 128n5; gender and sexuality 331–332; high-context culture 344; history 348; intercultural learning 119; Internet users 324; masculinity 330–331; Mulan 285, 286, 288–301; radio 439; regionalism 436; research 50, 51; shared values with the United States 332–333; silence 248; technology 442; two faces of Chinese communication 273–282; Western men’s identity in 374–391
Chodorow, N. 398
Chrétien, Jean-Pierre 104
Christianity 126, 441, 472, 496–497, 498, 503
chronemics 24
Chuang, Rueyling 180
Chung, Jensen 93, 117, 270n4, 278
civic culture 45
civil society 497, 498, 499, 510–511
civilizational conflicts 43, 44
“clash of civilizations” 35, 43, 127, 498–499
class 359, 438; critical cultural communication research 87; discrimination 106; identity 418; ideology 287; intersectionalities 6, 345–346, 350; Mexican diaspora 311; “primordial ties” 499, 500; self-identification 318
Coca-Colonization 433
code switching 79
co-existence 11
Cohn, D’V. 336
Cold War 36, 39, 40, 43, 46n17, 431, 432, 437, 439
Coleridge, Samuel 97
collectivism 87, 193, 331; Ballad of Mulan 298–300;
Confucianism 255, 256, 257, 267, 270, 271n11; Hofstede’s dimensions 180, 188n34, 329, 345; India 251, 253; shared values 332; see also communalism
Collier, Mary Jane 198, 339, 420, 422; communication competence 194; cultural identity 85, 318, 417–418; ethnic relationships 202; intracultural communication 83; postcolonialism 181; privilege 347
colonialism 135, 184, 359, 448, 498; cultural hybridity 120; history 349; India 483; Latin America 314; power of communication 113; Sri Lanka 468; U.S.–Japanese communication 370
colonization of the consciousness 445, 448–449, 453
commercialization 445, 451, 497
communalism 228–229; see also collectivism communication: Asiacentricity 112–115, 118, 123–124, 274; Chinese 273–282; communication revolution 127; comparative perspective 237–238; Confucianism 256–257, 266–267, 268, 269, 270; critical paradigms 195, 197; as cultural ecology 122; culture relationship 190, 192, 193, 194, 198; cybernetics 38–39; definitions of 59, 64, 113, 239; development 467, 469, 476–477; dialectical perspective 200, 201, 203; ecological approach to 408; Ecology of Language Paradigm 452, 453–455; English language 445, 446–447, 455; equality 5; ethnicity 420–421; ethnography of 58–59; Foreign Service Institute 27–29; form and function 64–65, 71; functionalist paradigm 192–193; Hall’s approach 19, 178; identity 417; international 35–47, 60, 80, 244, 454; interpretive paradigm 193–195; Islam 240, 242, 243, 245–246; liberal pluralism 197; mapping cultural communication research 76–91; nommo 215–216; relationship with culture 66–68; Sarvodarya movement 469, 475, 478; silence 248–249, 251–252, 253–254; “theoretical metadiscourse” 123; U.S.–Japanese 357–373; see also intercultural communication; intracultural communication; language
communication accommodation theory 193
communication apprehension 81, 87
communication competence 68–71, 73, 361; critical metatheoretical approach 370; journal articles 83, 85; power relations 364; see also intercultural communication competence
communicative practice: African 211–212, 213, 215–217, 222, 223; coordinated management of meaning perspective 67; identity 419, 426
communism 239, 431, 432, 433, 435, 442
community: African rhetoric 213, 216–217, 219, 221–222; communicative practice 212, 213; culture as 60–61; global 503; imagined communities 345; Islam 242, 244; Pueblo Indians 460; social disintegration 6; ubuntu 229
compassion 474, 507, 508, 509, 510
competence see intercultural communication competence compliance-gaining strategies 273, 277–278
computer networks 482
computer-mediated communication (CMC) 84
Comte, Auguste 192
Condon, John C. 29n1, 175, 176
conflict 191, 268, 432; Chinese communication 277; civilizational 43, 44; Four Seasons of Ethnography 168; intracultural 53; religious 500; silence used to avoid 251, 252; see also war
Confucianism 9, 125, 255–272, 299, 496–497, 504; collectivism 257; ethics 124, 237; filial piety 296; moral development 258–260, 268; problems of current interpretation 266–269; role hierarchy 269–270; rules of propriety 264–266; sympathy 509; words lacking in substance 260–262, 268; words/action relationship 262–264, 268–269
connection 396
Connell, Raewyn W. 376
consciousness 137, 140, 144, 149n12
constructivism 59, 160, 162, 394, 401; marginality 410; radical 396, 398, 409
consumerism 451
context 178, 417; dialectical perspective 200; multicultural identity 405–406; power asymmetries 371–372
conversation, culture as 60, 61
Cook, Barry 290
coordinated management of meaning (CMM) perspective 58–59, 71–73; acculturation 69–70; communication 64–65; culture as conversation 61; functions of culture 62–63; locus of culture 63; relationship of culture and communication 67; research goals 65–66
Cornyetz, N. 201
cosmopolitanism 123
Coughlin, W. J. 447
countermodernization 432
covert culture 176
Cowan, J. Milton 20
Crang, Philip 377
creation-based cultures 153, 161, 162, 169, 170
Creel, Herrlee 255, 259, 270n2
Crichton, M. 368
critical cultural communication research 76, 87
critical intercultural communication studies 2, 4, 5, 113
critical pedagogy 351–352, 353n9
critical perspectives 116, 197, 200, 201; Asiacentricity 123–126; critical humanist paradigm 191, 192, 195–196, 198–199, 358; critical race perspective 93; critical structuralist paradigm 191, 192, 195, 196–197, 198–199; identity 417–418; intercultural communication competence 351–353; research 52; U.S.–Japanese communication 357, 358–361, 363, 370–371
critical theory 40, 87, 156, 195, 199, 367, 399
Cronen, Vernon E. 30n10, 61, 64, 66, 69, 70
cross-cultural communication 30n7, 322; definition of 203n1; journal articles 76, 83; masculine-feminine construct 327–331, 337; research 86–87; see also intercultural communication
cultural awareness 361
cultural communication 194, 201, 203n1; see also intercultural communication
cultural communication research 76–91; approach to study 79–80; critical 76, 87; cross-cultural communication 86–87; general trends 80–82; intercultural communication 83–86; intracultural communication 82–83; shifting terminology 77–79
cultural competence 68–71, 73, 513; see also intercultural communication competence
cultural contracts theory 85
cultural differences 5, 43–44, 120, 318; Bhabha on 183–184; business sector 29, 32n41; Hall’s approach 177; Hofstede’s dimensions 180; misunderstandings 113; rise of intercultural communication 175; U.S.– Japanese communication 358–361, 369, 370, 371; see also difference; diversity
cultural hybridity 120–123, 183–184, 307, 308, 317
cultural studies 78, 124–125, 195, 353n9, 358, 418, 422
culture: academic socialization 172n4; African 106, 212; American 45, 342, 451, 454; Asiacentricity 111; behavior related to 37; centering 117, 118, 119–120, 126; centrality of 349; Chinese 128n7, 286, 289, 290, 291–293, 294, 295, 297, 299; “clash of civilizations” theory 498–499; colonization of the consciousness 448–449; communication relationship 190, 192, 193, 194, 198; comparative perspective 237–238; concepts of 179–180, 181, 186, 345–346, 359; critical perspectives 195, 196–197; cultural imperative 52–53; definitions of 59, 60, 77–78; dialectical perspective 198–199, 200, 203; Ecology of Language Paradigm 452; etic research 49; Foreign Service Institute 18, 19, 22–24, 27; form 59–62, 71; Four Seasons of Ethnography 167, 168, 169, 170; function 62–63, 71; functionalist paradigm 193; Hall’s approach 176–178, 179; Hawaiian epistemology 137–138; heritage language education 465, 466; identity 416; intercultural communication competence 349–351; international communications 41; international relations 36; interpretive paradigm 193–195; intracultural communication research agenda 53–54; Islamic 245; journal articles 51–52; Kawaida 115–116, 212; language and 21–22, 27, 340; liberal pluralism 197; locus of 63; masculine-feminine construct 327–331; material realm 366; methodological issues 152–153; Mexican diaspora 307–308; micro- and macro-levels of 2, 18, 194; Mowlana on 3; multicultural identity 400, 407; national character 39–40; patterns of 39; Popper on 147–148; rational explanations 158; relationship with communication 66–68; research 48; researcher independence 156–157; rootedness 117–118; shifting terminology 77–78; Sri Lanka 472; Starosta on 92, 93–95; technological change in non-Western cultures 41–42; theoretical perspectives 58–75; transdifference 186; ubuntu 231; see also acculturation; cultural differences; popular culture
Cummings, Melbourne 93
Dahlen, Tommy 359
Daoism (Taoism) 271n9, 496–497
Darnell, D. K. 81
Darwinism 102
decolonization 238, 307, 361, 425, 439
deconstruction 6, 124–125, 288, 301
delayed gratification 45
democratization 498
demodernization 432
Denmark 437
Denton, N. A. 313
Denzin, Norman K. 77
Depp, Johnny 325
Derrida, Jacques 128n6, 195, 419
Descartes, R. 139
descriptive linguistics 19, 26, 27, 31n28
Deutsch, Karl W. 39
development 433–434, 467, 468–469; development theory 40; four approaches to 476–477; modernization theory 498; Sarvodarya movement 469, 472, 473–476, 477
Dewey, John 470
dialectic perspective 190, 198–203, 318
dialogue 96, 127, 496, 497, 501–505, 507–508, 513–514
DiCaprio, Leonardo 325
difference 2–3, 88, 114–115, 359–360, 367, 370, 442, 506; dialectical perspective 201, 203; Starosta on 93; tolerance of 502; transdifference 184–187; transplanetary interculturalists 92, 97; see also cultural differences; diversity
Diffusion of English Paradigm 452
dignity 499, 504; African rhetoric 212, 213, 214, 219–221; Islam 245; rights-consciousness 512; ubuntu 227, 233
Ding, Y. X. 331
Diop, Cheikh Anta 112
diplomacy 511
discrimination 106, 367–369, 499, 502, 507; Africans 108; linguistic 445, 446, 447–448, 452; see also prejudice; racism
“discursive imperialism” 114, 126, 128n3
Dissanayake, Wimal 10, 115, 128n6, 128n8, 300, 467–479
diversity 394, 496, 499, 502–504, 514; Hall’s approach 177; unity in 111, 126; see also cultural differences
Dodd, Carley H. 175
Dogon people 215
dominant paradigm 40
domination 5, 106, 152, 301, 360, 511; cultural 451, 454; European domination of Africa 104–105; linguistic 445, 448; see also power
“double-emic” perspective 92, 97
Douglass, Frederick 224
Drzewiecka, Jolanta A. 10, 305–306, 415–428
Du Bois, W. E. B. 112
dualism 143, 157–158, 199–200, 242, 243
Duauf 104
Duff, P. A. 340
Duke, David 440
East Asia 50, 51, 52, 53, 256, 436
Eastern Communication Association (ECA) 88, 94
“East-West Game” 347
ecological perspective 122
Ecology of Language Paradigm 445, 452–455
Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 436, 437
economic development 41, 482, 502, 511
Edmondson, Jingjing Z. 112, 128n5
educated hope 301
education: bilingual education programs 10, 457, 458–459, 464; China 378; critical pedagogy 351–352, 353n9; development approaches 477; Gandhian villages 491; gender differences 330; heritage language education 457–466; Japanese educational system 365; Sarvodarya movement 473
Eguchi, Shinsuke 96
Egypt 439, 441; communicative practice 212, 214, 217–218, 219, 220–221, 222–223, 228; European laws 240–241; mosques 243; philosophy 102–104
Ellingsworth, Huber W. 81
Ellul, Jacques 239
emic concepts 178
emic grammar 62
emic research 27, 49, 97, 193, 194
empiricism 137, 143, 144, 149n20
English language 10, 126, 445–456, 465; bilingual education programs 457, 458–459; China 378; Mexican diaspora 43, 308; Sri Lanka 468; U.S.–Japanese communication 364–365, 366, 370
Enlightenment 6, 118, 496, 504
entitlement 157
environmental issues 222, 434–435
epistemology: Afrocentricity 108; Asiacentricity 274; Hawaiian 134–150; Islam 242
equality 5, 214, 504; centricity 120; Ecology of Language Paradigm 445, 452, 453–454; gender 499; relativism 179; U.S.–Japanese communication 371
equanimity 474
essentialism 93, 95, 96, 121, 341, 371; Asiacentricity 124; identity 416, 424, 425, 426
ethical intelligence 513
ethics 6, 7; African rhetoric 211, 212, 217, 219–224; Asiacentricity 117, 124; Confucianism 255, 267; Four Seasons of Ethnography 160, 170; global 126, 496; Islam 237, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246; Sarvodarya movement 469; Western men in China 387–388; see also moral development
ethnicity 78–79, 152, 431, 438; cross-cultural communication research 87; dialectical perspective 202; ethnic violence 432, 437; identity 399, 404; intersectionalities 6; Mexican diaspora 318; performativity 420–421, 422; “primordial ties” 500; Starosta on 94; see also African Americans; Asian Americans; race
ethnocentrism 35, 39–40, 117–118, 237, 502–503, 505, 514; Asiacentricity 112; international communications 40, 41; Weber’s theory 41
ethnography 81, 151–173; critical 204n4
ethnography of communication 58–59, 71–73; acculturation 70–71; communication 64–65; culture as code 62; functions of culture 62–63; locus of culture 63; relationship of culture and communication 67–68; research goals 66
ethnolinguistic vitality 79
etic concepts 178
Etzioni, A. 435
Eurocentricity 118, 119, 127n1
Eurocentrism 3, 9, 76, 88, 118, 119, 273; cross-cultural communication 86; cultural critics 124; cultural hybridity 120; culture as theory 116–117; hegemonic 179; “ideal order” 341; identity 395; intercultural communication competence 340; methodological 128n4; postcolonialism 128n3, 181; power of communication 113–114, 115; power relations 5
Europe: American movie imports 450; art and culture 106; cross-cultural communication research 86, 87; cultural imperative 52–53; cultural rootedness 117–118; domination of Africa 104–105, 107; intracultural communication 53; masculine-feminine construct 328; philosophy 102, 103; regionalism 436, 437; research 50, 52; secularism 240; universalism 114
Ewing, Kent 378
exclusion 65, 186, 289–290, 425, 514
“experience-distant” concepts 341
extended family 45
face-to-face interaction 7, 24, 84, 113, 496, 513
Fairbanks, Gordon 30n20
family: African rhetoric 212, 221; Chinese culture 277; extended 45; filial piety 295–298; gender roles 322–323; Mulan 292
Farabi 241
Farrer, James 376
The Fatherhood Institute 322–323
Fauvelle-Aymar, François-Xavier 104
feedback 38
femininity 321–338; androgyny 333–337; Asian 376; cross-cultural research 327–331; global television-Internet franchises 331–333; Hofstede’s dimensions 180, 188n34, 328–329, 345; mediated communication 324–327; Mulan 288; shared values 332; Western men in China 382; see also gender; women
feminism 288, 350; Ballad of Mulan 298–299; collectivistic 298–300; deconstruction 125; identity 396; Mulan 285, 286, 289, 290, 291, 293–294, 295, 300; split subject 418; U.S.–Japanese communication 371; see also gender; women
Feng, L. 289
Ferguson, Charles A. 22, 30n20
Ferguson, R. 341
Filipino identity 415, 425, 426n4
film 325
Firmin, Anténor 108
Fitch, Kristine L. 194
Flook, C. A. 327
Flores, Lisa A. 196
food rituals 421
Foreign Service Institute (FSI) 17–32, 38, 86, 176
formal culture 23
Foucault, Michel 128n6, 195, 345, 347, 419
Four Seasons of Ethnography 151–173; autumn 164–165, 168–169; guiding ideals 158–162; spring 162–167; summer 163–164, 167–168; winter 165, 170–171
Fox, Vicente 309
Frank, André Gunder 476
Frank, Jerome 39
Frankel, H. H. 297
Frankfurt School 37, 40, 46n3, 195, 358
Frauchiger, Fritz 30n20
Frederick, H. 197
Fremantle, Francesca 147, 149n15
Friedrich, G. 61
Fromm, Erich 37, 40, 46n3, 46n14
FSI see Foreign Service Institute
fu-bian 128n5
functionalism 116, 191, 192–193, 194–195, 197, 200, 201, 452
functions of communication 64–65, 71
functions of culture 62–63, 71
Gadamer, Hans-Georg 96
Galifianakis, Zach 325
Gandhi, Mahatma 10, 95, 126, 252, 253, 307, 480, 481–482, 483–494
Garreau, J. 441
Gearing, Fred 151
Gee, J. 410
Geertz, Clifford 59, 69, 77, 114, 341, 397
Geidner, N. W. 327
gender 9, 321–338, 359; androgyny 333–337; Ballad of Mulan 298–300; bias 501; critical cultural communication research 87; cross-cultural communication 87, 327–331; discrimination 106; family roles 322–323; global television-Internet franchises 331–333; identity 398, 399, 404, 418, 420; inequality 507; intersectionalities 6, 345–346, 350; mediated communication 324–327; Mulan 289, 291–292, 293–294; “primordial ties” 499, 500; Starosta on 93–94; see also femininity; feminism; masculinity; women
Gergen, K. 399
German Idealism 193
Germany 39–40, 176, 328, 438, 439
gestures 28
Gilligan, C. 398
Giroux, Henry A. 288, 301, 351, 352, 353, 399
Glee 323
global village 480–481, 482, 494, 496, 499, 503
globalism 431, 433–435, 445, 449–450, 455
globalization 10, 339, 480, 496, 497–502, 505, 513, 514; Asiacentricity 121, 125; English language 445, 449–451, 454; gender and sexuality 332; intensification of 1; Islam 237; justice 507; popular culture 285; shared values 332, 333
Goldman, Alan 257
González, P. 315
Goodenough, Ward 31n27
Gorer, Geoffrey 29n3
Great Britain: colonialism in India 483, 484, 485–486; movies 197; research 50; Sri Lanka 468; see also United Kingdom
Greek philosophy 102–103, 104, 212, 218–219, 241, 496, 503, 509
Griaule, M. 215
group membership 60, 61, 66–67, 84, 416
Gudykunst, William B. 5, 18, 30n4, 30n7, 30n10, 60–61, 175, 176; collectivism 257; communication 64, 65, 66; communication competence 69; encounters with the Other 340–341; functionalism 193; intracultural communication 83; qualitative research 30n11; subjective-objective distinction 191
Guevera, Che 134
Gumperz, John 30n9
Gunaratne, Shelton A. 4, 7, 112, 114, 117, 123–124
Guo, Z. 128n7
Guo Maoqian 295
Gurin, P. 310
Haas, Mary 20
Habermas, Jürgen 195, 361, 453–454
Halemakua 149n8
Hall, Edward T. 17–32, 38, 46n7, 48, 54, 96, 174, 176–178, 179; cultural unconscious 359; culture/communication relationship 59, 66, 67, 68; definitions of culture 77; founding of intercultural communication 175; high-context cultures 341; linguistics 198; use of the term “intercultural communication” 83, 84
Hall, Ivan 367
Hall, Stuart 195, 196, 287, 288, 301, 359, 424
Halualani, Rona Tamiko 2, 10, 113, 305–306, 415–428
Hammer, M. R. 69
Hampden-Turner, Charles 178, 180
Hanks, Tom 325
Hardt, Hanno 348
harmony 11, 111, 126, 160, 171; Buddhism 470, 471; China 273, 274–276, 278–279, 331; Confucianism 256, 257, 267, 268, 269, 270; India 251, 252, 253; silence 248; tawhid 242
Harré, R. 267
Harris, L. 69
Hawai‘i: cross-cultural communication research 86–87; epistemology 134–150, 237; identity 415, 422–423
Hawkins, David 140, 146, 149n11
Hay, J. 288
He Chengtian 296
Heath, S. B. 340
Hebdige, Dick 195
Hecht, Michael L. 85, 194, 316, 397, 398–399, 420
Hegel, G. W. F. 241
hegemony 10, 87, 135, 419, 514; American 363–364, 366, 370, 434; Bhabha’s approach 184; European 105, 106; linguistic 445, 452, 454, 455; postcolonialism 182; Western 181
Hegemony of English Paradigm 452
Heisenberg, Werner 142
heritage language education 10, 457–466
hermeneutics 135, 138, 139, 148, 149n3, 193
Herz, John H. 39
Hibler, Kristen 181
hierarchy 106, 109, 127n2, 251; Chinese communication 275, 278; Confucianism 257, 266, 269–270; English language speakers 447–448; Mulan 291, 294, 295; universalization 289–290
high-context cultures 87, 178, 230, 233, 251, 257, 341, 344, 345
Hinduism 443n7, 470, 472, 496–497, 504; ethics 124; relatedness 125–126; silence 248–252
Hinkel, E. 230
Hispanics 94, 306, 307, 309, 313–314, 315, 316–317, 318, 457
historical sociology 39
history 348–349, 360–361, 369; acceleration of 433; Asiacentricity 117, 118; dialectical perspective 201; “end of history” 434, 498
Ho, P. 346
Hockett, Charles F. 22, 26, 30n20
Hoffman, S. 432
Hoffmann, Stanley 39
Hofstede, Geert 81, 96, 178, 179–180, 257, 323–324, 327–329, 330, 359
Holocaust 438
holographic paradigm 160, 161, 162, 166, 169
Holsti, Ole R. 39
Holt, G. Richard 275
Homer 104
Hong Kong 436
hooks, bell 350, 351, 368, 397–398
hope 301
Hopkins, Frank 21
Houston, Jean 149n12
Howe, Stephen 104
Hsin-Pao, Y. 30n21
human rights 435, 437–438, 511–512; African rhetoric 219–221; Ecology of Language Paradigm 452, 453; see also rights
humanism 399, 512; critical humanist paradigm 191, 192, 195–196, 198–199, 358; ubuntu 233, 234
humanity 505, 506, 507, 509, 510, 511, 512
humor 87
Hunt, Donald H. 31n33
Huntington, Samuel P. 35, 43, 44, 105, 106, 498
Hurtado, A. 310
hybridity 120–123, 183–184, 307, 308, 317
Hyde, M. 231
Hymes, Dell 31n35, 31n38, 59, 194
hypermodernization 432
Ibn Bajjah, Abubakr 241
Ibn Rushd 241
Ibn Sina 241
Ibn Zakariya Razi, Abubakr Mohammad 241
ideal speech situation 453–454
identity 1, 6, 415–428, 514; African 107, 108; articulation 287–288; Asian 125; Black 109; communication theory of 85; concepts of 375–376; context 405–406; critical perspectives 87, 195–196; critique of identity theorizing 416–418; cultural 85, 416–418, 497; decolonization 361; diasporic 305–306, 318; dynamic translation 424–426; ethnic 78–79, 152, 306, 420–421; formation 418–419; function of communication 64; gender 420; globalization impact on 500, 501; identity validation model 84; intercultural 69; intracultural communication 82; Japanese 369; linguistic 79; Mexican diaspora 305, 309–311, 312, 314, 315, 316–318; “multicultural man” model 393–394; multiplicity 180, 399; nationalism 438; performativity 420–422; postmodern views 398–399; power 346; primordial 442; resignification 422–423; social 63; transdifference 185, 186; Western men in China 374–391; see also multicultural identity; self
identity development theory 399, 410
identity politics 419, 424, 426, 505
ideology 287–288, 291, 360, 361; dominant 293; ideological interpellation 419; intercultural communication competence 348
Ile-Ife 11
imagined communities 345
immigrants 71, 85–86; Indian 253; inequalities 440; Mexicans 43, 307
imperialism 4, 179, 359, 498; American 45; communication 5; cultural 293, 348, 449, 452; “discursive” 114, 126, 128n3; linguistic 448, 452, 453; postcolonial critique 181; Western men’s identity in China 378
in-betweenness 6, 199, 409, 410, 412
India 10, 93, 432, 437, 439; Buddhism 503; Gandhi 483–494; regionalism 436; religious fundamentalism 441; research 51; silence 248–254; “Takers” and “Leavers” 483, 484
individualism 96, 126–127, 193, 257, 267; acquisitive 435; communalism contrast with 229; cross-cultural communication research 87; destructive 232; Disney 285; Hofstede’s dimensions 180, 188n34, 328, 329, 345; Mulan 290–291, 292–293, 300; progress-prone values 44–45; shared values 332; Western feminism 300
Indonesia 436
industrialization 487–488, 497
inequality 322, 346–347, 440; Ecology of Language Paradigm 452; gender 323, 507; global 450, 497; information flows 451; linguistic and communicative 445, 446–447, 452, 453; Western men in China 383
informal culture 23
information overload 178
Inkeles, A. 152
intelligence 141, 146, 148, 149n13, 512; ethical 513
Intensive Language Program (ILP) 20
intercultural communication 1–14; affective level 126; Asiacentricity 127; centricity 120; challenge of 174–175; civility 510; clash of cultures 230; critical issues 112–113; critical perspectives 195, 196, 197; critique of 179–181; critique of identity theorizing 416–418; cultural imperative 52–53; definitions of 175, 203n1, 318; dialectical perspective 198–203; diasporas 305; as encounters with the Other 340–342; English language 446, 449; Foreign Service Institute 17–32; functionalist paradigm 193; Hall’s approach 176–178; interpretive paradigm 194; Islam 244; marginality 410; Mexican diaspora 316–319; multicultural identity 404; multicultural man 393–394; new directions for research 2–7; postcolonialism 181–184; power 6, 113, 115; research 48–57, 76–77, 80, 83–86, 88; silence 253–254; Starosta 92–98; theoretical perspectives 58–59; United States 175–176; U.S.– Japanese 357–373; see also communication
intercultural communication competence 9, 68–71, 81, 85, 339–356; centrality of culture 349; components of 342–344; concepts of culture 345–346; connection 396; critical perspective 351–353; history 348–349; ideology 348; power 346–347, 351, 352–353, 364
intercultural sensitivity 361, 394, 404
interdependence 159, 229–231, 251, 499, 504, 508
interdisciplinarity 36, 38, 39, 42, 198
internarrativity 97
international communication 60, 80; Ecology of Language Paradigm 454; evolution of the field 35–47; Islam 244
International Monetary Fund 433
international relations 35, 36, 37–38, 39, 431
internationalization 367
Internet 10, 42, 324, 450–451; gender and sexuality 326–327, 331–333; social networking sites 326–327, 331
interparadigmatic borrowing 197–198
interpretation 65–66, 148, 149n3
interpretive paradigm 116, 191, 192, 193–195, 197, 201, 416–417
intersectionalities 2–3, 6, 92, 345–346, 350
intracultural communication 6, 8, 48, 119, 187n3; conflicts 53; definition of 203n1; journal articles 51, 76, 82–83; research agenda 53–54
introspection 251
Iran 50, 240, 243, 436, 437, 439, 441, 442
Iraq 42, 432, 437, 438, 439, 441
Irvine, J. 62
Islam 9, 237–247, 443n7, 496–497, 498, 503; Asiacentricity 124; “clash of civilizations” 43; Sri Lanka 472
Isocrates 104
Italy 438
Ito, Rie 377
Ivey, A. 399
Ivey, M. B. 399
Iyer, P. 362
Jackson, Michael 336, 433, 442
Jainism 249, 251, 252, 496, 504
Jandt, Fred E. 128n4, 157, 301, 317, 347
Japan 38, 39–40, 44, 53, 175, 418; American movie imports 450; Asiacentricity 118; atomic bombing 447; collectivism 257; cultural hybridity 121; gendered stereotypes 376; intercultural learning 119; intracultural communication 82–83; masculinity 328; research 50, 51; silence 248; U.S.–Japanese communication 357–373; Western men in 374–375, 377
Jayatilleke, K. N. 471
Jenkins, J. 411
Jensen, J. Vernon 249
Jervis, Robert 39
Jia, Wenshan 275
jihad 244
Johannesen, Richard L. 249
Johnson, Elmer 500
Johnson, J. M. 155
Johnson, P. 79
Johnson, Richard 422
Jolie, Angelina 336
journal articles 48–52, 76–77, 79–88; see also research
Jovovich, Milla 336
justice 507–509, 510, 512; see also social justice
Kagemni 103
Kalscheuer, Britta 8, 121, 174–189, 415
Kamwangamalu, Nkonko M. 9, 226–236
Karenga, Maulana 9, 111, 112, 116, 120–121, 125, 126, 211–225
Kawaida 111, 115–116, 212, 213, 217
Kealey, D. J. 398
Kelly, George 403
Kelly, William 9, 357–373, 374
Kelsky, Karen 376
Kemetic rhetoric 217–218, 219, 220–221, 222–223
Kennard, Edward 21, 22, 27, 30n20, 31n30, 31n31
Kennedy, Bobby 36
Kennedy, John F. 36
Kenyatta, Jomo 228
Kepler Lewis, Ralph 31n30
Kerr, A. 363
Keynes, John Maynard 493
Khoza, R. 232
Khunanup 217–218, 220–221, 223
Kim, J. K. 331
Kim, Min-Sun 85, 86–87, 127, 193
Kim, Young Yun 30n4, 59, 68–69, 81, 193, 340–341
Kincaid, D. Lawrence 53–54, 176
kindness 474
kinesics 18, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31n35
King, A. Y. C. 260, 267, 271n13
Kingston, Maxine Hong 295
Kirkbride, P. S. 331
Kluckhohn, Clyde 21
knowledge: African rhetoric 214; Afrocentricity 104; Asiacentricity 117; deconstruction 125; dialectical perspective 199; English language dominance 455; Eurocentric 128n4; Hawaiian epistemology 135, 136, 138, 141, 142; indigenous 116, 126; intercultural communication competence 343–344; non-traditional sources 159; paradoxical tentativeness 160; as power 148; tentative certainty 169; Western 102, 108; wisdom and 512, 513; see also epistemology
Koester, Jolene 340
Kojima, Kazuo 447
Korea 50, 53, 119, 257, 436, 439
Korean War 36
Kroeber, Alfred L. 238
Kung Fu Tzu 104
Kuti, Fela 44
Kyoto 11
Lacan, Jacques 128n6
Laden, Sonja 235
Lagos 11
language 231, 340, 437; Asiacentricity 117, 118; Confucianism 255–269; Ecology of Language Paradigm 452–455; Foreign Service Institute 20–22, 26–27, 30n15; Hawaiian epistemology 139–140; heritage language education 457–466; identity 79; language loss 462; linguistic conflicts 499; linguistic knowledge 343; right to 452–453, 454; Taoism 271n9; ubuntu 226; see also English language; words
Latin America 376, 436, 437; see also South America
Latin Americans 37
Latinos 306, 310, 314–315, 316–317, 318, 341
Lazarsfeld, Paul 41
leadership 334–335, 411–412, 464
least developed countries (LDCs) 439, 508
“Leavers” 481, 482–483, 484–485, 488, 494
Lee, Wen Shu 94, 96, 196, 347, 348, 353n5
Leeds-Hurwitz, Wendy 8, 17–34, 83, 348
Lefebvre, Henri 182
Lengel, Lara 113
Lenin, Vladimir I. 239
Lewis, Alan 81
Lewis, Richard D. 180
li 264, 273, 274–275, 276–277, 279
liberal pluralism 197
Lichtheim, M. 221
life histories 32n42
Lili’uokalani, Queen 135
Lin, H. D. 275
Lincoln, Yvonna S. 77, 153, 160
“linguicism” 127
“linguistic method” of language training 20–21
linguistics: descriptive 19, 26, 27, 31n28; interdisciplinarity 198; linguistic translation 424; metalinguistics 25
Little Bear, Leroy 146
Liu, S.-H. 271n13
Livingstone, David 107
Lobenguela, King 106
localism 431, 439–441; liberal 455; linguistic 453
locality 114
localization 1, 10, 125, 496, 499
locus of culture 63
long-term orientation 332
Lovaas, K. E. 346
low-context cultures 87, 178, 230, 345
Luhman, N. 185
Lummis, C. Douglas 364
Lustig, M. W. 340
Maat 217–218, 219, 220–221, 222, 223
Maddox, W. 30n20
Magni, M. 324
Makhudu, N. 233
Malam, Linda 376
Malaysia 436
Mali 215
Manvi, Meera 127n1
Marcuse, Herbert 46n3
Maree, J. 229
marginality 351, 393–395, 396, 398, 403–407, 409–410, 412
marriage 406
Marsden, Maori 146
Martin, Judith N. 8–9, 83, 190–207, 318, 340; acculturation 69; communication as meaning-making 113; critical humanist perspective 358; cultural differences 120; definitions of culture 346; identities 422
Martin, M. M. 85
Martin, S. C. 113
martyrdom 244
Marx, Karl 442
masculinity 321–338; androgyny 333–337; critical cultural communication research 87; cross-cultural research 327–331; global television-Internet franchises 331–333; hegemonic 376; Hofstede’s dimensions 180, 188n34, 328–329, 345; mediated communication 324–327; shared values 332; transformation of 333; Western men in China 9–10, 374–391
mass media 30n5, 42, 124, 287, 331; see also media
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 40–41
Massey, D. S. 313
Matukumalli, Anuradha 9, 248–254
Mbigi, L. 229
McClintock, Anne 422
McEvoy, G. 410
McIntosh, Peggy 343
mdw nfr (medu nefer) 211, 212, 217, 218, 219, 220, 223
Mead, Margaret 29n3, 31n37, 37, 41–42
meaning: articulation 301; cybernetics 38–39; intentionality of communication 65; media texts 287; representation 419; transdifference 185; triangulation of 134, 142–148
media 6–7; Anglo-Americanization 450; articulation 287, 288; cultural studies 78; gender and sexuality 324–327, 337; Gulf War 442; pervasiveness of 324; see also Internet; television
Mendoza, S. Lily 2, 10, 113, 115, 415–428
Merikare 103
metalinguistics 25
metaphors 270
methodological issues 54, 151–153; Foreign Service Institute 27; Four Seasons of Ethnography 154–155, 160, 162; interviews with multicultural people 400–401; journal articles 81; Western science 153
Metraux, Rhoda 29n3
Mexican Americans 306, 307, 312, 313, 316–317
Mexicans 43, 83, 306, 310, 311–312, 316–317
microcultural analysis 19, 22–24, 26, 31n25
Middle East: culture 53; Islam 240; regionalism 436, 437; research 50, 52
Miike, Yoshitaka 1–14, 52, 95, 111–133, 179, 187n2, 188n31, 273–274, 279, 289, 299, 467, 478, 515–556
Miller, G. 64
Miller, J. B. 398
Miller, Webb 487
mind: Cartesian 396; mind/body dichotomy 140–141, 157–158; triangulation of meaning 142, 144–147
Miner, Horace 341
Mirandé, A. 316
Mistral, Gabriela 505
modernization 432, 435, 498, 499
moral development 258–260, 263–264, 265, 266, 268, 475; see also ethics
moral reasoning 270
Morin, R. 336
Morris, R. 196
Moskowitz, Marc L. 375, 377–378
mosques 243
Mostern, K. 352
motivation 343
Mouffe, Chantal 300
Mowlana, Hamid 3, 9, 46n2, 116, 122, 124, 127, 237–247
multicultural identity 10, 393–414; alternative image of 408; case studies 401–403; commitment to others 408; context 405–406; deep roots 406–408; interview methodology 400–401; racism 403–405; review of literature 395–399
multicultural literacy 287, 301
“multicultural man” model 393–394, 395, 407, 411
multiculturalism 339, 411, 442; Asante on 119–120; Ecology of Language Paradigm 445, 452, 454; Huntington’s critique of 43; as symbolic issue 301
multilingualism 445, 452, 454, 455
multiparadigmatic collaboration 198
Mundy, L. 330
muti 234
Myers, L. 399
Nakayama, Thomas K. 2, 8–9, 52, 83, 96, 190–207, 318; communication as meaning-making 113; critical humanist perspective 358; cultural differences 120; identities 422
narrativization 419
national character 39
National Communication Association (NCA) 51
national culture 78
national image theory 39
nationalism 44, 104, 426, 431, 432, 437–439, 442
nation-state 39, 92, 116; concepts of culture 345–346; demise of the 339; Islamic states 240
Native Americans 20, 152, 154, 159, 352, 418, 438; heritage language education 457–458, 459–466; paralinguistics 27; tribal sovereignty 460
naturalistic paradigm 153, 156, 160, 162
Neher, W. W. 32n40
neocolonialism 113, 120, 445, 446–449
neoconservatism 47n35
neutralingual communication 453
New World Information and Communication Order Debate (NWICO Debate) 44
Newmark, Eileen 5
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o 114, 122, 448
Nguyen, M. 288
Nigeria 106
Niles, Lyndrey A. 93
nkrabea 11
Nkrumah, Kwame 112
Noble, Greg 376
nonverbal communication 24–25, 29, 344
non-violence: Buddhism 470, 471; Gandhi 253, 480, 486–487, 490, 492
norms 78, 231, 366, 370, 417, 435
North Korea 331
Nussbaum, B. 231
Obenga, Théophile 102
objectivity 141, 144–145, 146, 147–148, 160–161, 171, 191
Occidentalism 9–10, 182, 376, 377, 382, 387, 389
Ohnuki-Tierney, E. 121
Oliver, Robert T. 80, 81, 88, 248, 257, 261, 270n3
ontology 153, 154–155, 157, 161, 273
opportunism 156
oppression 106, 135, 351, 353n7
Orbe, Mark P. 195
O’Reilly, Bill 323
Organization of American States (OAS) 436
Orientalism 4, 182, 286, 290, 291–293, 371; Mulan 295; Western men in China 376, 377, 379, 382, 383, 388
Other 158, 289, 376; dialogue with the 502; encounters with the 340–342; fear of the 503, 511; idealized 152; Mulan 293, 295; non-Western women 298, 300; objectification of the 367; Orientalism 290
Pakistan 436
Pan-Africanism 109
Pandikattu, Kuruvilla 10, 480–495
paracommunication 31n29
paradigm shifts 77
paradoxical tentativeness 160–162
paralanguage 18, 25, 26, 27, 29
Parker, B. 410
parochialism 440
Parsons, Talcott 238
patriarchy 106, 293, 295, 298, 299, 300
Patterson, Orlando 315
Pearce, W. Barnett 61, 62, 64, 67, 69–70, 73
Peck, J. 196
Pejic 334
Pekmezian, Naomi 30n20
Peng, T. 310
Pennington, Dorthy 93
Pennycook, Alastair 449
perceived similarity 81
Pérez-Torres, R. 309
performativity 415, 419, 420–422
Perrot, Claude-Hélène 104
Peru 349
Philadelphia 441
Philipsen, Gerry 59–60, 62, 65, 66, 71, 81, 194, 420
Phillipson, Robert 453
philosophy: African 102–104; Greek 102–103, 104, 212, 218–219, 241, 496, 503, 509; Islamic 241–242
physical displacement 307–308, 309
piety 245
Pike, John 49
Piller, Ingrid 377
pluralism: liberal 197; linguistic and cultural 445, 454; methodological 1
politeness 264–265, 273, 275, 511
political oratory 218
politics: Aristotelian rhetoric 218–219; Confucianism 260, 263; cultural differences approach 364; Islam 240; Latinos 314; secularism 243
polycentrism 93
popular culture 78, 120, 196; articulation 287, 288; Mulan 285, 286, 301
Popular Memory Group 422
Porter, D. T. 81
Porter, Richard E. 60, 64, 66, 175, 176
positivism 94, 147, 192; critique of 180; ethnography 153, 156, 160, 161
postcolonialism 128n3, 128n6, 174, 181–184, 186, 359–360, 371; critical humanist paradigm 196, 358; cultural tradition 116; deconstruction 124–125; diasporas 307; “discursive imperialism” 114; split subject 418
postmodernism 128n3, 197, 371; cultural tradition 116; deconstruction 124–125; identity 398–399, 418; relativism 154; split subject 418
postmodernization 432
poststructuralism 6; deconstruction 124–125; identity 424; postcolonialism 128n6; split subject 418
poverty 434, 507–508; India 488, 489, 492, 493; urban 500
power 5–6, 115, 135, 180, 360, 361; asymmetries 179, 371–372; Chinese communication 276, 278; critical pedagogy 352; critical perspectives 113, 196, 201, 363; cultural hybridity 121; English language 365, 447, 449, 454; globalization 451; identity 417, 419, 426; intercultural communication competence 346–347, 351, 352–353, 364; knowledge as 148; networks of 410; postcolonialism 182, 184; postmodernism 371; privilege and disadvantage 202; research paradigms 194–195; Starosta on 96; transdifference 185, 186–187; U.S.–Japanese communication 357–358, 369–370, 371; Western men in China 374, 378, 382, 383; see also domination; hegemony
power distance 180, 188n34, 257, 332, 345
pragmatism 470
Pratt, S. 68
preparedness 159
primary message system (PMS) 77
Prince 336
Prinsloo, E. 233
privilege 5–6, 180, 202, 203, 347; Starosta on 96; white 343, 352
property 492
Protestantism 41, 44–45, 443n7
proxemics 18, 24–25, 26, 27, 29, 31n35, 177–178
Ptahhotep 103, 217, 219–220, 221
public/private spheres 300
Pueblo Indians 10, 457–458, 459–466
punishment 252
Pythagoras 103