CHAPTER 12

Report Writing, Project and Proposal Writing

Chapter Objectives

This chapter aims to give the students the basics of report writing. It gives the basic structure of reports and provides samples of report types, the letter form and the schematic form of report writing. The specific report forms that have been discussed are the feasibility reports, the empirical research report and the proposal format.

REPORT WRITING: THEORY AND PRACTICE

Modern corporate culture is highly dependent on management information system. This system is based on reporting. Important decisions, facts and information have to be conveyed at various levels and at various stages. The information has to be accurate and up-to-date. The data collected must be properly organized and valid. Ensure that it gives the necessary information suitable for further analysis and action by the management. At this point it is important to remember that there is no single way of writing a report. Many organizations have their own formats. Formats may also vary depending on the kind of report being written and the purpose it is supposed to serve. At times, a report can even be put in the ‘memo’ format if it is being communicated to someone within the organization. Or it can be a voluminous research report giving factual details and analysis.

Structure of a Detailed Written Report

The structure of the report can be divided into three main parts—The front matter, the main body, and the back matter.

The Front Matter

The front matter consists of the title page, the forwarding letter, the preface, the acknowledgements, table of contents, the abstract and the summary.

Title Page :

The title page of a formal report generally has the following features—

The Title

The Sub-title

Name of the author

Name of the authority for whom the report is written

The contract, project or job number

The date

(Although there is no strict rule as to how the title page should be designed, the following is a sample of how it could look).

Title Page

Forwarding Letter and Preface

A forwarding letter is a kind of introductory letter through which the author establishes a rapport with the reader, puts the book or project in the proper perspective. It also makes some important points regarding the scope, contents and purpose of the book. The preface serves more or less the same purpose but while the “preface” is written by the author himself, an expert customarily writes a “foreword”. In most cases it might suffice to simply have a preface. It is also possible at times to have a table of contents, an abstract or a summary after the first page and directly go on to the “Introduction ”.

Such decisions largely depend on the kind of report you are writing and the usual practice at the place of work.

Acknowledgements:

In the acknowledgements, we generally list out the names of the people and organizations that have helped in the making of the report.

Table of Contents:

If a report is several pages long and deals with various aspects of a problem, it is necessary to have a table of contents. Its function is to give the reader an overall view of the report, help him locate a particular topic or subtopic. Given below is the structure of the table of contents. Note that the Arabic numerals begin only from “Introduction” onwards.

Table of Contents

Abstract / Summary:

Most reports consist of a synopsis, which is called an abstract or sometimes an executive summary. An abstract tells what the report is about and gives the extent of coverage. A summary gives the substance of the report without any illustrations and explanations. However, a summary will give the method of analysis, the significant findings, the important conclusions and the major recommendations. The abstract is generally about two to three per cent of the original while the summary is about five to ten percent. Often, a combination of both is presented as the synopsis. The executive summary forms an important part of the report. It should contain the following:

• why the work was done
• how the work was done
• what was found—results, conclusions, recommendations.

A good abstract should be complete, concise, specific and self-sufficient. And it is to be written only at the end of a report.

Main Body

Introduction

An introduction familiarizes the reader with the subject of the report. It lists out the following items of information:

• Historical and technical background
• scope of study with its limitations and qualifications
• methods of collecting data and their sources
• authorization for the report and terms of reference; and definitions of special terms and symbols.

While preparing the main body of the report, it is necessary to divide it into the main and the sub points. This improves clarity and aids understanding. An “Introduction” sets the scene and prepares the reader. Thus it needs to state in a sincere and unambiguous manner that which it is going discuss.

Discussion or Description:

The main business of the report is discussed in this section. Containing most of the illustrations, it fills most of the report. The main function of this part is to present data in an organized form, discuss their significance, analysis and the results. If the data is too voluminous, it is given in the appendix. There is no one particular procedure for writing the discussion. Some writers prefer to use a backward order i.e., first stating the results and then describing how they were arrived at. Or at times, the data and procedure is mentioned first and the results follow.

Conclusions:

This term refers to the body of logical inferences drawn and the judgements made on the basis of analysis of data presented in the report. All conclusions are supported by what has gone before; nothing new is included at this stage. If their number is large, they may be itemized in the descending order of their importance.

Recommendations:

Conclusions comprise the inferences and the findings, whereas the function of recommendations is to suggest the future course of action. A busy executive may sometimes read only this part of the report and take decisions. Thus, recommendations are formulated after considering all aspects of the question examined in the report. The terms of reference generally indicate whether recommendations are required or not. If required, recommendations can be listed out in the descending order of importance. If their number is more, they may be grouped under different subheadings.

Back Matter

Appendices:

The appendix contains material, which is necessary to support the main body of the report, but is very lengthy to be included in the text. It should be such that, not reading it should not effect the reader's total understanding of the report. However, it should, if one wishes to examine, provide all the evidence and documents.

Bibliography:

A bibliography is a list of published or unpublished works, which are consulted while preparing a report. While writing a bibliography, care has to be taken about the order of authors or authors' names and surnames, the sequence of details, the punctuation marks, and the layout.

Examples:

1. Atkins, Douglas, G., and Michael L, Johnson. Eds. 1986. Writing and Reading Differently: Deconstruction and Teaching of Composition and Literature, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
2. Sundarajan Rajeshwari. Ed. 1992. The Lie of the Land: English Literary Studies in India, Delhi: OUP.

Glossary:

A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report, with their meanings explained. The need for a glossary depends on how familiar the readers are with the topic discussed.

Index:

The index serves as a quick guide to the material in the report. It helps the reader to locate easily any topic, sub-topic or an aspect of the contents. The index is useful in bulky reports where the table of contents is not sufficient. Entries are made in alphabetical order with cross-references. The page numbers on which information about an entry is available are mentioned against it.

Apart from the detailed report above, there can also be the following kinds of reports—

Reports of Routine Nature

In all organizations, there are routine reports that go to management personnel at fixed intervals like every day or every fortnight or every month or every quarter. These are called routine reports. They are related to matters relating to production, labour efficiency, cash flow and sales performance. In fact, these routine reports are mainly statistical, and the clerk or the junior executive in some cases can collect the data in a predetermined form and present it without much use of language. In efficient organizations, there are readymade forms for major reports and only the figures need to be filled in. The function of these routine reports is to collect precise data and submit it on time to enable the management to take corrective action before it is very late.

Reports that Are Special

At times, vital decisions of the management are dependent on special reports. These reports concern things that are not repetitive and routine in nature. When the management calls for a report, it also specifies who has to report and to whom. The instructions further contain a clear-cut statement of the objective behind seeking the report. At times, the special reports are a consequence of routine reporting. For instance, let us say shortage of raw material is reported several times after adequate material has been ordered. The management may suspect thefts of material and may ask a person or a committee to investigate and report. For many reports of this kind, it is necessary to collect data, interpret and analyze it, and even give suggestions. Data can be collected by visiting a place, directly assessing a situation, interviewing, corresponding with people or even holding meetings.

METHODS OF REPORTING

There are two methods by which individuals can write reports:

The Letter Method

It may take the form of an ordinary letter. That means that usual formality of heading, address, inside addresses, salutation etc. should be maintained in the report. Below the salutation, the title of the report should come.

The next paragraph should show what procedure the report writer followed and what persons he interviewed. The rest of the paragraphs should show the findings and the last paragraph should give the conclusions or the considered opinion of the report writer. In short, it is just a more systematically written letter.

The Schematic Method

This method is more common in committee reports.

Here, the title of the report is given first. Then, the contents of the report are given under the following subtitles.

1. Terms of reference: This section should give the source or the authority that ordered the report. It also describes the scope of the report and its objectives.
2. Procedure: This section should give the method followed by the report-writer. It may mention the places visited, persons interviewed, etc.
3. Findings: The facts as they exist are presented in proper order here.
4. Recommendations or Conclusion: This section should give the considered opinion of the report–writer based on the facts as interpreted by him. It has got to be an expert opinion based on incontrovertible facts.

The end may have the signature and designation of the report writer

The following is a report presented in both the letter method and the schematic method:

1. Report on workers' discontent presented in the Letter form

DECCAN ENGINEERING CO. LTD.

2-2-344, Balanagar, HYDERABAD 500 011.

Ph.040-27938966/67/79

April 24, 2003

The Directors,

Deccan Engineering Co. Ltd.

Balanagar,

HYDERABAD 500 011.

Report on workers' discontent at the Company's auxiliary unit

In accordance with the instruction given to me on April 9, 2003, I visited the auxiliary unit of the Company in order to find out the cause and extent of discontent among the workers.

I interviewed supervisors, plant-operators and 25 workers selected at random in this context.

I found out the following facts that are responsible for this trouble:

There seems to be widespread discontent amongst workers. Several other personnel pointed out that the number of incidents of breach of discipline and general non-cooperative attitude had gone up considerably. They expressed the view that the situation was deteriorating and that a serious outbreak of misbehaviour might result. The workers, on their part also had some complaints. According to them the supervisors were inadequate; the workers were given long hours on the production line and skilled personnel were not eager to explain the working of the machinery to apprentices. There were other avoidable lapses that the workers resented. The skilled personnel, to save their own time, leave the machines dirty so that the unskilled workers have to clean them. Safety precautions in the machine room are continually being ignored. There is a widespread belief that the rates paid to workers are the lowest in the area.

I am of the opinion that immediate action must be taken to prevent further disturbances. It is also felt that there is evidence that all the complaints are well-founded. In particluar, ignoring safety precautions is an offence against the Factories Act and must be stopped.

Regarding pay and allowances, it is necessary to bring to the notice of the workers that our rates compare favourably with those paid to apprentices in other similar units. It is therefore my considered opinion that the following suggestions will go a long way in reducing the discontent:

• A special officer may be appointed and he should be asked to draw up a systematic program for the unit.
• All supervisors must be strictly advised to keep machinery clean and observe all safety precautions.
• The Personnel Officer must point out to the workers that the rates of payment enjoyed in this factory are very favorable.

Yours faithfully,

Sd/-

Trivikrama Rao

Company Secretary

2. Report on workers' discontent in the Schematic form

The same report can be presented in the schematic form with sub-headings for different points.

DECCAN ENGINEERING CO. LTD.

2-2-344, Balanagar, HYDERABAD 500 011.

Ph. 040-27938966/67/79

Report on workers' discontent at Company's Auxiliary Unit

Terms of reference: In accordance with the instructions given to me on April 9, 2003, I visited the auxiliary unit of the Company in order to find out the causes and extent of discontent among the workers.

Procedure: In this connection, I interviewed supervisors, plant-operators and 25 workers selected at random.

I found out the following facts that are responsible for this unrest.

Findings: There seems to be widespread discontent amongst workers. Several other personnel pointed out that the number of incidents of breach of discipline and general non-cooperative attitude had gone up considerably. They expressed the view that the situation was deteriorating and that serious outbreaks of misbehaviour might result.

The workers, on their part, also had some complaints. According to them the supervisors were inadequate, the workers were given long hours on the production line and skilled personnel were not eager to explain the working of the machinery to workers. There were other avoidable lapses that the workers resent. The skilled personnel, to save their own time, leave the machines dirty so that the unskilled workers have to clean them. Safety precautions in the machine room are continually being ignored. Further, there is a wide spread belief that the rates paid to workers are the lowest in the area.

Conclusion: I am of the opinion that immediate action must be taken to prevent further discontent and ill will. There is evidence to believe that all complaints are well-founded. Deliberately ignoring safety precautions is an offence against the Factories Act and must be stopped.

Regarding pay and allowances, it is necessary to bring to the notice of the workers that our rates compare favourably with those paid to apprentices in other similar units.

Recommendations: It is therefore my considered opinion that the following suggestions will go a long way in reducing the discontent:

• A special officer may be appointed and he should be asked to draw up a systematic program for the unit.
• All supervisors must be strictly advised to keep machinery clean and observe all safety precautions.
• The Personnel Officer must point out to the workers that the rates of payment enjoyed in this factory are very favorable.

Sd/-

Trivikrama Rao

Company Secretary

April 24, 2003

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report is one of the most frequently used report forms. It is generally written as an evaluation of whether or not a particular course of action is desirable. It is written to help the decision-makers choose between two or more courses of action. Sometimes, the choice is between maintaining the status-quo and choosing the alternative being suggested. Sometimes, the choice can even be between two or more choices when the decision about the change has already been taken. An automobile industry, for example, might be considering the possibility of using hard plastic for certain parts for which metal has always been used. The choice here could also be between hard-plastic or some other alloy recently discovered that is costly but more durable.

The feasibility report has to make a very careful consideration of :

• The various alternatives or the alternative suggested.
• The methods used to test the viability of using the alternatives.
• The advantages and disadvantages of the various alternatives. (This can be presented in a tabular form to make comparison easy at a single glance).
• The alternative that you think is viable and why.

Structure of the Feasibility Report

The following are the main parts of a feasibility report. Remember that only the main parts are being mentioned here. Other elements of the report such as the title page and synopsis have to be written according to the conventions of the workplace and the kind of report being written.

The Introduction: “Introduction” of the feasibility report is generally the answer to the question: why should we consider these alternatives? For this, one has to identify the problem the feasibility report will help us solve, study the alternative courses of action considered and also briefly consider the methods used to investigate and arrive at the conclusions.

Evaluation: In a way, the evaluation is the heart of the feasibility report. A detailed point-by-point evaluation of the course of action being recommended is what the feasibility report is about. The manner in which we present the matter for evaluation will determine the type of report that is being prepared. An important part of “evaluation” is dismissing unsuitable alternatives.

Conclusions: The conclusion will consist of a detailed assessment of the course of action the evaluation section has spoken about. You can mention your conclusion in more than one place in the report. The summary at the beginning can mention the conclusion. The introduction, again, can mention the conclusion finally arrived at. And finally, you should be able to provide a detailed description of the conclusion in the section following the “Evaluation”.

Recommendation: A feasibility report generally ends with what the writer of the report feels about the alternatives. Since you have studied the situation so thoroughly, you should be in a position to make sensible recommendations that suggest a course of action.

The Empirical Research Report

The empirical research report is prepared after careful investigation or observation. It is prepared when, for example, scientists are trying out a new technique to improve the communication system through satellites or a group of social scientists are trying to find methods to improve the creative faculty in students. This kind of report will have the following structure.

Introduction: The Introduction of a research report should begin with the announcing of the subject. If you have been working on genetic engineering for example, to produce a superior variety of rice, your introduction can begin like this.

This work is primarily concerned with the genetic engineering techniques that can be issued to enhance the quality of rice grains being produced in our country.

Importance of the work: This work is extremely important keeping in mind the fact that India has to compete now with the global market with respect to food products.

Objectives of the Research: A research report has to have carefully defined objectives. This helps the writers of the report to be focused, select the appropriate research methods and shape the manner in which the result is to be interpreted. The research on the grain quality, for example, can have the following approach.

Particularly, the work shall look into how better grains can be engineered and supplied to the farmers at less cost. We also would like to look into the possibility of making them longer and if possible, aromatic. Our aim is to have it ready by the time the Indian farmer is made to face the global challenge.

The Method: Details about the method of research help in many ways: It convinces the reader about the soundness of your research proposal, it gives the reader a rough idea of what your research result will be like. And finally, it becomes a documented guideline of the steps that need to be taken if similar research is to be conducted. The methods of the report discussed earlier could read like this:

First, the grains widely used by farmers were taken up for analysis and compared with some of the best quality grains in the global market, etc.

The Results: The results of the study undertaken should be presented in a form that is easily accessible to the readers. It could be put in the form of a table and explained diagrammatically, if necessary.

Discussion: The ‘Discussion’ will include primarily the interpretation of the results. It is possible to sometimes present the Results and the Discussion together. Even if they are presented in separate columns, it is necessary to weave them together. Sometimes, if there are many aspects of the Results that are significant, every aspect has to be taken up individually and discussed at length.

Conclusions: After interpreting the results, it is important to explain their significance in the light of the original stance taken in the “objectives”. It is necessary to restate the results and closely coordinate it with the objectives. In a way, it should tie up the loose ends, restate the focus and make the study a coherent whole. in the report being discussed, the conclusion could read like this.

The study shows that the quality of the grains can be enhanced. The process will necessitate sophisticated technicalities and a few imported machinery. As for the cost factor, the initial cost will be more that what the farmers incur right now. But subsequently, the profits will more than make up for the initial expenditure.

Recommendations: If the research project is based on a practical problem, the readers would definitely like to know what the writer thinks should be done. In the example discussed above, the recommendations could be regarding the following:

A number of research stations could be set up to fasten the process, the method of quickly procuring the machinery involved and a loan system could be considered to enable the farmers to make the initial investment.

Introduction

Presently many companies are using mechanical data recorders to define the shipping environment. However, a few companies do not consider the use of data recorders at all. This paper explains why companies must seriously consider using electronic shock and vibration data recorders.

With a view to showing why the electronic data recorders are better than mechanical data recorders, this report will discuss the following:

• Differences in the two types of recorders vis-à-vis accuracy and functionality
• The possibility of creating better test plans using an electronic data recorder
• How electronic data recorders reduce costs by defining the distribution environment and refuting damage claims?
• The advantages in the facility of downloading and analyzing data by means of an electronic data recorder.

Data Recorders Accuracy

The earlier mechanical data recorders are not as accurate and dependable as the electronic data recorders. Most of the older devices were purely mechanical in nature and used a paper graph or a visual indicator to quantify shock levels. These devices are popular and presently in use due to the relatively low cost and ease of use. These devices may be cheaper, but they do not seem dependable. The accuracy and functioning of the electronic data recorders will be discussed next to show the relative advantage.

Accuracy and Functioning of Mechanical Data Recorders

These devices are of three main types, each having different functions. All these types, however, have limitations. The mechanical data recorders discussed in this paper include

1. One-use impact indicators
2. Shock level recorders
3. Threshold indicators

One-use impact indicators: Many mechanical shock devices are designed for single-time use. These devices detect a problem only if the product has been tilted or tipped beyond a preset limit. They indicate that the shock has exceeded a certain g level, indicating the force of gravity. However they do not show just how many g levels have been experienced. They also do not indicate how many times the package was dropped.

Shock level recorders: Shock level recorders print shock level data on the chart paper. The height of the spike on the paper indicates the level of shock. These shock recorders are easy to use, but the results are complex requiring thorough interpretation by experts in comparison with electronic PC-based devices.

Threshold indicators: Threshold indicators show those shock events that go beyond a certain level. These devices indicate that the shock exceeded a certain g level. However they do not show how many g's the package experienced, nor do they give an idea of how many drops the package received.

All things considered, it is a fact that can be convincingly established that the mechanical data recorders are not as accurate as the electronic data recorders. If the main purpose of using these recorders is to accurately define the distribution environment, then they must be able to furnish reliable data. If the recorders don't furnish accurate data, they are a waste of time and money. Hence, using electronic data recorders, instead of mechanical data recorders, is preferable.

Functioning of Electronic Data Recorders

The electronic data recorders generally make use of a tri-axial accelerometer to catch dynamic events and store them in memory for processing on a PC at a later time. A tri-axial accelerometer can measure shock emanating from all and any direction, as against many mechanical data recorders that can measure shock in only one or two directions. Most of these data recorders are equipped with software programs for downloading the data and converting it into charts and graphs.

The electronic devices show the acceleration/shock that a package receives in actuality. The orientation of the shock is recorded too. Using a mechanical recorder that could read shock in only one direction, such as flat-on-bottom shocks, one realizes how much packaging protection is needed for the bottom of the shipped product. However one would not know how much protection is needed if the package is dropped on its side or the other end.

The orientation of the shock information is as useful as the drop height information. By using electronic data recorders, that are able to measure shock in all directions, one can accurately define how much protection is required for each side of the product. Instead of a package with two inches of foam on all sides, one can make a package with two inches of foam on the bottom, one-half inch of foam on top, and one inch of foam on the sides and ends. Such a design surely saves packaging material, saves money, and, most importantly, protects the product. The expense involved in the purchase of these data recorders is naturally much more than the mechanical models, but the units are more accurate, dependable and valuable.

Accuracy of Electronic Data Recorders

A study undertaken by me (1998) compared two electronic data recorders, the EIS by ‘Delhi Instruments’ and the FES by the ‘Mitra Sensor Technology’. The FES measured shock values with a margin of error of approximately 1% overall, while the margin of error for the EIS varied between 10% and 25% for similar shock values. A mean error of approximately 5% is acceptable by all standards for most shock measuring instrumentation. As you can see in Table 1, the electronic data recorders are more accurate than the mechanical recorders.

Table 1: Data Recorder Accuracy

Recorder type	% error
Single use Mechanical	35
Shock level recorder Mechanical	175
EIS Electronic	10-25
FES Electronic	1

Test Plan Development

After working in a test laboratory for a rigorous period, I realized that test planning was one of the most difficult tasks of my job. It was difficult to determine what drop height to use and what vibration intensity to use. Some companies have a tendency to follow blindly the Standards generally used to qualify a product. According to Kalyan Kumar, the Packaging Incharge at the NII of Vishakhapatnam, the test levels in the Standards are generally not high enough.

In other words, if you want to ensure zero product damage, you must use the electronic data recorders to measure the shipping environment, instead of relying only on the Standards.

For a package to be eligible for shipment according to the Standards, it must initially pass a multiple drop sequence of specific heights and a vibration test. The drop heights and vibration test intensities are determined by the test technician, who decides test levels based on the package weight, cost of the product, method of shipment, and the proposed mode of shipment for the package. Stating theoretically, the higher the weight of the product, the lower the drop height it will be subjected to.

The test technician takes into account this type of information when deciding what test intensity to use:

• If the product is heavy, the cost high, and the product to be shipped in a small parcel environment, the technician will very likely choose Assurance Level I (the highest test level).
• However, if the package is heavy, the product is inexpensive, and the product will be shipped by trucking, the technician will probably choose Assurance Level III (the lowest test level).

Standard test levels can underestimate actual shipping conditions. Many people think that by opting Assurance Level 1 they are being conservative. But actually they are not; they are underestimating the actual vibration intensity, this means that your package could pass the Standard test, but when you ship the product it may get damaged.

During the research, test levels were determined by the Standards by analyzing past shipping data and taking the average of these shipping situations to develop standard test levels that try to match these situations. How does one know if a shipping situation is average? One may answer this question by using the electronic data recorders to measure one's shipping environment, and also by defining the actual shipping conditions. Then one can test at those levels to see if one's package will protect the product adequately.

Standards state that if more detailed information is available on the transportation environment, it is recommended that the procedure be modified to use such information. Electronic data recorders are conducive for gathering this kind of information. By determining the real shipping conditions, the time spent to develop a test plan is reduced and, as we all know, time is both money and resource.

We have determined that an important condition that must be considered in a package design is the drop height. In an experiment done by Anant, a small 3-kg cushioned package was shipped 120 kms via a carrier who kept it five days. The package received seven drops with an average drop height of 12.7", the highest drop being 43.8". But the initial results suggested a design drop height of 43". The author stated that this was only an initial test, and that it should be repeated several times to generate a database. If you compare this drop height to drop heights given in Standards you will see a major difference. Standards suggests a drop height of 16", plus one drop of 31". In fact, JTP 18/4 recommends 32" drop.

Reduced Cost by Defining the Distribution

When a package is shipped, irrespective of whether it contains an expensive piece of equipment or perishable food items, shock and vibration can badly affect the contents. There are many benefits that are gained by using the electronic data recorders to rebut damage claims or to define the shipping environment. This section will highlight these benefits. All the benefits add up to cost savings.

Given below is a detailed discussion of the advantages in using an electronic data recorder.

Decreased damage

Decreased damage may be the main reason for using electronic data recorders. Freight damage claims cost businesses billions of rupees a year. You may have the best-designed product, but if it is not packaged properly to withstand the wear and tear of shipping, you could end up with a broken product. Trucking forms the greatest risk of product damage. A package will be handled 10–12 times and will travel on seven different trucks for an average shipment.

The way to cut the shipping damage is to define the distribution environment. A package could be shipped by many different modes of transportation. The hazards for each mode of transportation and for each specific carrier can vary greatly. Although packaging may protect a product in one situation, it may not protect it in another because of transport quality and varying road conditions.

Source Reduction

Another way to cut costs is to reduce waste by ensuring no over-packaging. Over-packaging accounts for big percentage of the money spent on packaging materials. Clearly, by decreasing the amount of material used to package a product, cost is decreased. Further, if the package size is decreased the shipping cost is decreased, since it may weigh less and more packages may fit in a truck. Less material translates directly into money saving on material and shipping costs.

Conclusion

This report elaborates the reasons why companies should consider using electronic shock and vibration data recorders. The older mechanical data recorders were compared to the newer electronic models and it has been proved beyond doubt that the older models used traditionally are not as accurate as the electronic versions. The gains of using the electronic data recorders are many. Some of the factors that have been discussed in detail in the report are ease of developing test plans, cost savings and ease of data analysis.

Both the above two kinds of reports i.e., feasibility and empirical, along with the ensuing section on proposal writing use a certain structure, style and format, which together constitute the dynamics of Project Writing. However the themes of project writing are numerous and diverse. These themes can be projects dealing with empirical studies, feasibility studies and project proposal writing.

PROPOSAL WRITING

A proposal is a persuasive communication, generally written when the readers are to be persuaded to adopt a course of action you would like them to. This is something you will have to often do in your career. You might have to write a proposal for a new product you want to develop or try to persuade your employers to make a few costly changes. Or, may be, you would want to suggest a few changes in the marketing policy of your company. To do all this, you will have to write good proposals, present them persuasively and convincingly. In writing a good proposal, there are basically three things you need to identify.

• The Problem: In a proposal, it is important to state the problem convincingly, talk about the needs, and why the proposal is important.
• Solution: The solution to the problem is another important feature in a proposal. The readers will be interested in proving what you want to propose exactly and how it related to the problem presented earlier.
• Costs: The next most important thing in a proposal is the cost factor. What will be the cost of the changes and is the cost worth the change.

The Overall Structure

As mentioned before a proposal is a highly persuasive communication that has to be carefully. A typical proposal has the following features.

Topic	Point of Persuation
1. Introduction	What do you propose to do.
2. Problem	Why is it important.
3. Objectives	The features necessary to make a successful solution
4. Solution	The detailed, overall plan of what you plan to do.
5. Plan of action Method Resources Schedule Management plan	The resources with which you have to do the work, the schedule you have fixed for it and your plan to execute it.
6. Costs	How reasonable is the cost.

Introduction: At the beginning of the proposal it is important to announce what the proposal is about. If the proposal is complex, you might have to give some background information to help readers understand what you have in your mind. If you have a proposal, for example, to introduce a device or a new software that will help automate the examination system, you can start the “introduction” in the following way:

This is a proposal to automate the examination system in colleges and universities…

Problem: Once you have made clear what you are proposing, it is important to state what problem it will address. You will have to persuade your readers that the problem is significant to them. The manner in which you describe and present the problem is very important for the success of the proposal. Although you show that the project will achieve its objectives and you are equipped to carry it to its logical end, the readers have to be convinced first that the work needs to be taken up. And to do this you will have to present the problem from their point of view and convince them that it will be their concern too. The fixing of the problem can be of different types. One, where the problem is already defined. Second, where the broad area is vaguely mentioned and you will have to hit upon a issue. The third is where you will have to persuade your readers that a problem exists and it needs to be solved.

Objectives: Stating the objectives clearly is a vital link between the problem and the action. It talks about how the action will solve the problem to make the objectives convincing. Be careful and ensure that every objective grows out of the problem. If we take the automation of the examination system, for example, the objective can be to

1. devise a system where the probability of subjective and careless marking can be minimized.
2. make the whole examination process less cumbersome and error-free.

Similarly, if we take the example of the booking of conference rooms, our objectives can be

1. To maintain an up-to-date schedule of reservation that will be accessible to every person in the company.
2. Enable only the assigned people in every department to make or cancel reservations through their terminal.

Solution: This is a section that will describe the plans for achieving the objectives. In both these cases, for example, we should be able to give a basic explanation of the computer programming and an idea of how it would help to achieve the objectives. A good solution has the following properties.

1. It addresses each of the objectives.
2. It is desirable. In fact, it is the best way of achieving the objectives.

It is important also to take the reader into consideration when you are presenting the solution. It can be technical, or you might have to simplify it at times if you feel that it will be more acceptable. You may even have to skip some explanation if you feel that they are obvious to the reader.

Plan of action: It is necessary to provide the plan of action because the audience sometimes needs to be assured that you have the planning and the capacity to do what you want to do. Here, you have to give a detailed account of the following:

Resources: It is necessary to be able to tell your audience that you have the resources, the equipments, the expertise etc., necessary to carry out the proposal. At this point it is also necessary to state what else you would need for the work and how they can be procured.

Schedule: Schedule is one of the important elements in a proposal. You should be able to give your audience a very clear picture of how much time the work will take. This is necessary for several reasons.

1. You should be able to say how much of your time you would like to divert for this project.
2. The audience need to feel that the schedule is sound enough for the proposal to be effective. A good proposal that takes too much time might lose its effectiveness. Similarly, an ill-timed proposal may not have the kind of benefits it would otherwise have had.

A proper schedule and the right timing thus are among the most important things in the making of an effective proposal.

Costs: Invariably, a proposal means that you are asking your audience to invest their money. To convince them to do so, you should be able to give a clear picture of the costs to be incurred. It is important to be able to show that the costs are reasonable. This can be done better if you could also give a calculation of how much can be saved as a result of the project.

SUMMARY

• Reports form an important part of information management in the corporate and industrial segments.
• The report can primarily be divided into the Front Matter, the Main Body and the Back Matter.
• Routine reports are those that go to management personnel at fixed intervals but there are special reports that determine a lot of management decisions.
• A feasibility report is generally written as an evaluation of whether or not a particular course of action is desirable.
• The empirical research report is prepared after careful investigation or observation of an issue or problem
• Project writing involves writing about themes that can be taken up as project work. These themes can be projects dealing with empirical studies, feasibility studies and project proposal writing.
• A proposal is a persuasive communication, generally written when the readers are to be persuaded to adopt a course of action you would like them to.
• In writing a good proposal, there are three things you need to identify. They are, the problem, the solution, the costs.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How would you define a report? Give an account of the structure of a report showing how each of the parts plays a vital role in constructing it.
2. What is the difference between the empirical and the feasibility report? Illustrate with examples.
3. How and why is a proposal important in professional and academic contexts? Give the main elements a proposal should contain.