18
The Serhatköy photovoltaic power plant and the future of renewable energy on the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Integrating solar photovoltaic and wind farms into electricity transmission and distribution networks
Abstract
Under a grant provided by the Council of the European Union to support the Turkish-Cypriot Community, a photovoltaic (PV) power plant of 1275 MWp was designed by the authors and built on the Serhatköy site in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The plant is unique on the island of Cyprus and the largest in the East Mediterranean area. The plant was connected in May 2011 to the grid of Kib-Tek and produces 2 GWh of electricity annually.
Following the experience of the operation of the Serhatköy PV plant and in order to stimulate significant industrial and tourism development and to respond to the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, this chapter proposes an innovative programme of renewable energy power plants including solar plants and wind farms that could be implemented by 2018.
Keywords
Cyprus; Energy efficiency; Transmission lines; Wind farmsAn abstract of this chapter was presented at the YEKSEM 2013 Renewable Energy Sources Symposium, October 4–6, 2013, Acapulco Otel, Kyrenia, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus: The Serhatköy Photovoltaic Power Plant and the Future of Renewable Energy on the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
18.1. Background
Following a long period of colonisation since 1925, Cyprus gained independence from British rule in August 1960, and the Republic of Cyprus was founded providing a guarantee of both Greek and Turkish Cypriots communities by Britain and Turkey. However, during the following years, conflicts developed between the two communities. On July 15, 1974, the Greek military junta backed a Greek Cypriot military coup d'état in Cyprus. The Greek Cypriot leaders of the coup proclaimed the establishment of the ‘Hellenic Republic of Cyprus’ with the intent to annex the island to Greece. Turkey claimed that under the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee, the coup was sufficient reason for military action to protect the Turkish-Cypriot population, and thus Turkey entered Cyprus on July 20. Turkish forces proceeded to take over the northern part of the island (about 37% of Cyprus's total area). The coup caused a civil war filled with ethnic violence, after which it collapsed (Figure 18.1).
During the 1974 hostilities, 45,000 Turkish Cypriots, making up about 40% of the Turkish-Cypriot population at the time, left the south for the safety of the north. Some population transfers were subsequently made in accordance with the Population Exchange Agreement between Turkish and Greek Cypriots under the auspices of United Nations on August 2, 1975. The same year, the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus was declared as a first step toward a future federated Cypriot state, but was rejected by the Republic of Cyprus, the United Nations (UN) and the international community.
A ‘Green Line’ – dividing the two parts from Morphou through Nicosia to Famagusta – is patrolled by United Nations troops. The UN drew up the Green Line as a ceasefire demarcation line in 1963 after intervening to end communal tension. It became impassable after the Turkish invasion of 1974, except for designated crossing points. The capital Nicosia is divided, and checkpoints are under control of UN military personnel.
After eight years of failed negotiations with the leadership of the Greek Cypriot community, the north declared its independence on November 15, 1983, under the name of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). This unilateral declaration of independence was rejected by the UN and by the Republic of Cyprus.
The European Union decided in 2000 to accept the entire island of Cyprus as a member, even if it was divided. It was hoped that Cyprus's planned accession into the European Union would act as a catalyst toward a settlement. In 2004, a UN-brokered peace settlement was presented in a referendum to both sides. In the referendum, a majority of Turkish Cypriots accepted the proposal, but Greek Cypriots overwhelmingly rejected it. As a result, Cyprus as a whole entered the European Union divided, with the implementation of the effects of the ‘acquis communautaire’1 suspended for Northern Cyprus. This means inter alia that this area is outside the customs and fiscal territory of the EU. The suspension has territorial effect, but does not concern the personal rights of Turkish Cypriots as EU citizens. In 2004, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe gave observer status to the representatives of Turkish-Cypriot community.
The EU Council of April 26, 2004, considering that the Turkish-Cypriot community had expressed their clear desire for a future within the European Union, recommended that 259 million euros in aid should be used for the Turkish-Cypriot community. This was to put an end to the isolation of that community and to facilitate the re-unification of Cyprus by encouraging the economic development of the Turkish-Cypriot community, with particular emphasis on the economic integration of the island and on improving contact between the two communities and with the EU. To this effect, a number of projects in the infrastructure sector were approved within the overall aid programme. A major necessity had been identified to provide a grid-connected solar power plant capable of supplying peak power during the day. A budget of 4 million euros was allocated to the project. Additionally, equipment would be supplied for electricity metering and an supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) supervisory system for the grid.
18.1.2. Economy
The TRNC has a surface of 3355 km2 and a population of 300,000 inhabitants.
The economy of the TRNC is dominated by the services sector (69% of GDP in 2007), which includes the public sector, trade, tourism and education. Industry (light manufacturing) contributes 22% of GDP and agriculture 9%.
Economic development is adversely affected by the continuing Cyprus problem although the recent dramatic crisis in the Republic of Cyprus did not influence its financial sector. Because of its disputed status and the embargo placed upon it and some economic development, the TRNC is heavily dependent on Turkish economic support. Under a July 2006 agreement, Ankara is to provide the TRNC with economic aid. This is a continuation of ongoing policy under which the Turkish government allocates around $400 million annually from its budget to help raise the living standard of the Turkish-Cypriot community.
The TRNC uses the New Turkish Lira as its currency, which links its economy to that of Turkey's. Since the Republic of Cyprus joined the euro area and the movement of people between the north and south has become freer, the euro is also in wide circulation. Exports and imports have to go via Turkey unless they are produced locally from materials sourced in Cyprus and may thus be exported via one of the recognised ports. Water is a major problem in the territory as resources are lacking. An 80-km undersea pipeline from Southern Turkey is under construction that will carry 75 million cubic metres of fresh water for drinking and irrigation. This will be stored in the reservoir of Geçitköy Dam.
18.2. Electricity sector
18.2.1. Power generation
The Cyprus Turkish Electricity Authority (Kib-Tek), the national power company, has the responsibility for production, transmission and distribution in the TRNC and has a total generation capacity of 346.3 MWe (Figure 18.2).
It operates one oil-fired steam power plant, Teknecit (2 × 60 MWe), three gas turbines (50 MWe) and six diesel-electric (105 MWe). This includes 87.5 MWe of flat band power purchased from the private company AKSA that operates one steam plant and four diesel-electric (70 MWe). In mid-2011, the 1.26 MWp Serhatköy photovoltaic (PV) power plant was connected to the grid. Total generation by March 2013 was 3,323,627 kWh.
Despite the growth in energy production, power shortages remain frequent and sometimes long lasting, and power quality is poor. In 2007, the construction of six diesel-electric generators was completed, thus allowing Kib-Tek to satisfy the demand during peak hours. The risk of prolonged power cuts due to lack of generation capacity has been significantly reduced, but there is no reserve for necessary downtime for maintenance or in case of short-term problems during peak hours.
Most relevant for the solar power project is the very unbalanced demand with high power demand in peak day times and low power demand at night-time. The PV plant is of very small capacity, but it will contribute to peak demand. Figure 18.3 shows solar radiation potential in Cyprus. It is particularly remarkable that, besides the seasonal variation, there is also a strong volatility on a day-to-day basis. This is typical for a grid with insufficient reserve capacity.
18.2.2. Transmission and distribution
The transmission network in the northern part of Cyprus generally operates at 66 kV for high voltage, and 11 kV for medium voltage. An on-going co-operation programme with Turkey is focussing on renovation of the transmission network and transformer capacity. The programme includes the establishment of transmission rings for the improvement of the reliability of the system. Through new transmission lines, the 132 kV high-voltage level is being introduced. Some of those new lines are operated at 66 kV for a transitional period. The network in the northern part of Cyprus is disconnected from the grid of the transmission system operator – Cyprus (ΔΣΜ/DSM) of the Republic of Cyprus. Five 132 kV interconnection lines are available at three crossing points, but operational at 66 kV.
Almost half of the high-voltage substations are being renovated and were linked to an SCADA system in 2009.
It is interesting to note that in July 2011 the explosion of a nearby ammunition depot destroyed Vasilikos, the major power plant in the Republic of Cyprus. Kib-Tek offered power from Kib-Tek power plants that, through one reopened interconnection, supplied 80 MWe to the south during 12 months.
18.2.3. Power quality and availability
The electricity system presents the following main problems and shortcomings:
1. System vulnerability due to lack of spare capacity: Power shortages are frequent and power quality and stability are weak. The electricity supply system relies only on sources of power that are being used close to the limit. Any difficulty in one of the power sources, or even regular maintenance, immediately leads to serious power shortages in the system. The problem of insufficient reserves of capacity has led to the installation of private backup diesel generators in most industrial plants, commercial or public facilities. This is not very economical and is technically an inefficient solution. Industry strongly advocates a more reliable electricity supply system. The same vulnerability also exists in the transforming system, since its capacity is being used up to the limit.
2. Low power factor due to a high level of consumption of reactive energy: This is due to the fact that consumers, especially in the industry sector, do not correct their reactive energy demand with the use of capacitors. Another reason is that reactive energy is neither metred nor paid by industrial consumers. As a consequence, losses increase, equipment is misused and the overall efficiency of the system decreases.
3. Unbalanced demand with high power demand in peak daytime and low demand at night-time: Peak demand is growing all the time, thus leading to the need for new investments in capacity.
Until now, there have been no effective measures to balance demand. In case of power shortages, some regions of the country are simply switched off. The tariff system does not offer incentives to consumers to manage their power demand. There is evidence that industry would be open to a tariff system that would allow them to manage their power loads and consequently their electricity bills. In addition, electricity tariffs are not based on full costs that would generate capital for new or replacement investments.
18.3. The solar project
The European Commission selected two consultants (the authors of this chapter) to identify the type of plant technology and its site and to carry out a detailed analysis and planning for the turnkey construction following international tenders. Meetings were held in Nicosia in July 2008 with the management of Kib-Tek, the utility that would take over and operate the grid-connected plant.
A first site was assessed to develop the peak power plant and a visit was made at the 2 × 60 MW Teknecik oil-fired power plant located on the northern coast. The proposed concept was to build a large array of thermal solar collectors and to inject the heated steam into a stage of the steam turbine. Immediately, the concept was considered unfeasible as the surface of the solar collectors would have been very large and the modification to the turbine would have been complex and costly. As well, there would have been a long shutdown period. In addition, the Teknecik site was facing north with limited solar exposure. The allocated budget of 4 million euros would have been totally insufficient.
The consultants proposed considering a PV or a solar concentrated plant and to identify another site where the plant would be installed.
The identification of a suitable site for a PV plant that would require at least 25,000 m2 has been complicated, as during the civil war land was frequently dispossessed and property claims were very difficult to prove. Only the third site of Serhatköy was considered available. The site was certified, and all required availability of radiation parameters were assessed (Figure 18.4; Table 18.1).
18.3.1. Measured parameters
The following are some of the results carried out for the qualification of the site and the PV plant.
MN6 allows determination of the optimum inclination angle for solar collectors or modules. With this information, the optimum geometry of a solar collector or module array can be designed in order to obtain the maximum energy output for a given investment. Following in Table 18.2, the annual radiation received by areas with various fixed and tracking angles is presented. The fixed angles vary from 10° to 50°, always oriented southward.
Table 18.1
Monthly solar radiation values Serhatköy site (kWh/m2 year) (MN6 calculator)
| Month | H_Gh | H_Dh | H_Bn | H_Gk | H_Gn |
| Jan | 77 | 38 | 92 | 113 | 143 |
| Feb | 100 | 37 | 123 | 137 | 174 |
| Mar | 149 | 59 | 151 | 179 | 226 |
| Apr | 179 | 70 | 167 | 192 | 255 |
| May | 217 | 79 | 199 | 211 | 298 |
| Jun | 226 | 72 | 218 | 208 | 308 |
| Jul | 228 | 74 | 219 | 215 | 313 |
| Aug | 217 | 61 | 224 | 223 | 305 |
| Sep | 174 | 51 | 193 | 202 | 265 |
| Oct | 138 | 41 | 180 | 184 | 240 |
| Nov | 94 | 35 | 125 | 139 | 176 |
| Dec | 74 | 30 | 109 | 117 | 152 |
| Total | 1869 | 646 | 2002 | 2121 | 2856 |
H_Gh: Global radiation horizontal; H_Dh, Diffuse radiation horizontal; H_Bn, Beam radiation; H_Gn, Global radiation on tracking surface; H_Gk, Global radiation on titled plan, 30° inclination.
Figure 18.5 shows the relative annual value of radiation received on the same types of surface, 100% being defined as the amount received by the double-axis tracking geometry (Figure 18.6).
For systems with fixed inclination and southward orientation, the annual optimum is at an angle of approximately 33°. As shown by Figure 18.7, the sensitivity of the annual global radiation of the inclination angle is relatively weak.
18.3.2. Conclusions on solar radiation assessment with respect to solar power plant
Summarising the analysis of solar radiation presented in this chapter, the following statements are important with respect to the planning of a solar power plant:
• For fix-mounted collectors or modules, the optimum angle is 30°–35°. On this surface the annual radiation energy amounts to approximately 2100 kWh/m2.
• Seasonal tracking increases the annual radiation energy by 5% to approximately 2200 kWh/m2.
• Full double-axis tracking results in an increase of 35% to approximately 2850 kWh/m2.
18.3.3. Integration of the PV power plant into the grid
The integration of solar power plants into a power grid is different from other production facilities such as diesel or fossil-fuelled or combined-cycle plants. Several studies in European countries have shown that solar electricity, in terms of power capacity of below 10% of the total installed capacity, does not create substantial problems. In the case of the TRNC electricity system, the availability of a large diesel power capacity is certainly an advantage since diesel generators by nature are able to quickly respond to load variations. Therefore, it has been assumed that, as of today, the electricity grid could absorb solar power on the order of 20 MW peak power. A smart grid system would be able to support the grid management and dispatching system and compensate intermittent power generations (Figure 18.8).
18.3.4. Production cost of solar electricity
The production cost of electricity for three PV variants has been estimated using the annuity method. The main figures are presented in Table 18.3. With an interest rate of 6%, production costs between 20.5 and 22.5 Euro cents per kWh are obtained. These values can be considered as very attractive in the European context, the main reason being the favourable climatic conditions in Cyprus. However, with today's market price of PV modules and inverters, the construction costs would be considerably lower.
Table 18.3
Electricity production costs for three PV variants
| Variant | Fix-mounted crystalline silicon modules PV1 | Fix-mounted thin-film modules PV2 | Double-axis tracking crystalline silicon modules PV3 |
| Parameter | |||
| Investment (euro) | 4,100,000 | 3,900,000 | 4,900,000 |
| Interest rate (%) | 6.0% | 6.0% | 6.0% |
| Life time (yrs) | 25 | 25 | 25 |
| Annuity (%) | 7.8% | 7.8% | 7.8% |
| Annuity (euro) | 319,800 | 304,200 | 382,200 |
| Annual O&M costs | 24,600 | 23,400 | 44,100 |
| Total annual costs | 344,400 | 327,600 | 426,300 |
| Annual electricity production (kWh) | 1,533,000 | 1,575,000 | 2,080,500 |
| Production cost (Euro/kWh) | 0.225 | 0.208 | 0.205 |
18.4. The tender process and awarding of the contract
Following the drafting of the project specifications and the tender procedures, the European Commission issued an international tender call that had a good response. The contract was awarded for compliance with the project specifications and a lower price to the Turkish company ANELTECH, which submitted a price lower than target price of 4 million euros.
The contract was signed August 8, 2009. The technology ‘fix mounted crystalline modules’ presented by the Austrian KIOTO Photovoltaic AG was selected despite the slightly lower estimated price of the thin-film technology. To comply with the budget allocated, it was agreed that the plant would be built for a rated power of 1275 MWp.
The contractor responsibility included the plant's detailed design, the supply of all components, erection of the plant, the connection to the grid, testing, commissioning and delivery to Kib-Tek. Construction scheduled was planned for 12 months. The service for maintenance during operation was excluded from the turnkey contract.
18.5. Construction of the plant
18.5.1. General
The contractor made a detailed assessment of the site and calculated the design of the plant and its performances, by means of the PVSYST V5.12 simulation software.
The plant includes a total number of 6192 modules type KPV205 PE with 206 Wp output each, manufactured by the Austrian KIOTO Photovoltaics, fixed tilt on mounting structures, 86 inverters, the AC connection, MV transformers, metering and control interfaces with the grid. The plant layout surface is approximately 25,000 m2. The plant is not equipped with panel washing equipment, which was considered useless.
The annual generating capacity has been estimated at 2190 MWh.
ANELTECH has subsequently obtained a licence from KIOTO Photovoltaic AG and is now manufacturing certain types of modules.
Figures 18.9 and 18.10 show some of the calculations.
18.5.2. Module and cell specifications
Quantity: 6192.
Supplier: KIOTO, Austrian Model: KIOTO KPV 205 PE.
Characteristics of module: 54 multicrystalline cells 156 mm × 156 mm.
Cells: 6″ multicrystalline manufactured by E-Ton Solar Tech. Taiwan.
Specifications:
Pmpp: 205 Wp, Umpp: 25.98 V, Impp: 7.93 A, Uoc: 32.57 V, Isc: 8.44 A.
18.6. Performance of the plant
The plant's performance was excellent from its initial start-up despite some malfunctions that occurred on the transmission grid that reduced production for a few days. The plant's performance was also of exceptional high quality due to the KIOTO material; no degradation of the output from the PV panels was recorded due to possible ageing of the cells.
Figure 18.17(a)–(c) show performance from 2011 to 2013.
Nominal output 1274.58 kWp.
The performance during the first four months of 2014 was:
January 120,804.64 kWh
February 160,531.55 kWh
March 182,007.61 kWh
April 161,184.70 kWh
18.7. Recommendations for future improvements to the Serhatköy power plant
The investment for the construction of the Serhatköy power plant was a grant from the European Union. As the plant will generate free electricity on the grid, a substantial income could be reinvested for the plant enlargement. Since the major part of the annual cost is capital cost and assuming that a production of 1,500,000 kWh per year could be sold at a price of €0.12 per kWh, an income of €180,000 per year would be generated. Taking account the O&M costs, a capital of approximately €750,000 could be accumulated in 4 years, say until 2015.
With this capital, in 2015 an additional capacity of 300–400 kWp could be installed. As of today, we understand that this recommendation has not been followed.
Plant maintenance costs are considered negligible by Kib-Tek and are eventually included in the transmission line costs.
18.8. The Intergovernmental Programme for Climate Change
On September 27, 2013, and its 2014 addition the Intergovernmental Programme for Climate Change (IPCC) released its last report, summarised as follows:
‘It is confirmed that human origin is responsible for the earth temperature increase. The CO2 concentration on earth has reached the value of 400 ppm (compared to 6.1 ppm in 1990).
The melting of Arctic glaciers releases large quantities of methane, which is concentrated in the greenhouse. By year 2100, the temperature on earth is expected to rise from 6 °C to 15 °C. Sea levels are expected to rise from +30 to 100 cm’ (see Figures 18.18 and 18.19).
18.9. The future
The exceptional climate conditions on the territory of the TRNC (Figures 18.3, 18.20 and 18.21) make the country ideal for the installation of solar and wind power plants. The experience gained by Kib-Tek in the operation of the Serhatköy plant during the past 40 months is an opportunity to motivate the authorities of the Republic and Kib-Tek to evaluate the possibility of installing new renewable energy plants in order to support the economic growth of the country and to reduce emissions presently produced to a large extent by the fossil-fuelled plants.
The level of pollution in the country is very high and few provisions have been made to reduce it. The recent level of 400 ppm measured on Earth is a serious alarming signal. The mean annual temperature on the island is constantly rising as shown in Figure 18.20.
An in-depth assessment of the solar and wind conditions in the country has been carried out, and, in the second part of this chapter, the authors introduce a proposal to establish a renewable energy programme to be implemented by 2018.
The programme consists of the construction of additional PV and wind farms on the TRNC territory. This ‘energy mix’ will be able to guarantee a high availability of electricity production. The upgrading of the electricity transmission and distribution network should be included in the programme.
In addition, in order to compensate for intermittent power generation by the renewable energy systems, it is proposed to evaluate the feasibility of the construction of a pumped-storage scheme in which seawater would be pumped into a reservoir and be released, producing electricity during peak demand. An important environmental impact will be obtained as global emissions will be reduced and peak power generation will be available during the day due to the operation of the plants.
A smart grid system will control and manage the intermittent and variable generators of the solar plants and the wind turbines and will improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity.
The European Union has engaged in the objective the global target of 20% renewable energy by 2020, as averaged among all EU countries. Of note is that Sweden has today reached a target of 42% renewables, aiming at for 50% in 2020. The Republic of Cyprus's very poor target of 13% puts the country at the bottom of the EU rank. As the Turkish-Cypriot community has voted to join the EU, sooner or later this 20% renewable energy target will become an important objective.
18.9.1. Future project descriptions
18.9.1.1. Solar power plants
Among the various technologies employed to produce electricity from solar radiation, the PV was successfully selected for the Serhatköy plant.
It is proposed to build a number of 2 × 20 MWp PV plants. Each plant will employ the same configuration as the existing plant.
On the collectors' total surface, the estimated annual radiation energy amounts to approximately 2100 kWh/m2. Estimated annual production of electricity will be 60 GWh.
Preliminary evaluation of the land requirements indicates a total surface of 2 × 200,000 m2. The plants could be located on different sites depending on the availability of the land and connected to the grid. The estimated cost for the construction of the plants and the interconnection to the grid is 80 million euros. This does not include the cost of land (purchase or lease).
A feasibility study will be required to identify suitable sites, to measure the precise received radiation level, to simulate the operation during a period, to define details of the technology to be employed and to calculate the final costs of the plant.
The complete and detailed study, including solar energy measurements carried out for the Serhatköy PV plant, will be used as a guideline.
18.9.1.2. Wind power farms
Wind power generation plants have been developed worldwide as one of the most economic technologies of renewable energy. Cost per kWh produced is today totally competitive with fossil-fuelled plants. But emissions are zero.
Wind power plants require smaller land surfaces than the PV plants, and the masts carrying the generators are widely separated. Agricultural or small industrial estates can be maintained on the land. Wind conditions on the territory of the TRNC have average speeds of 5–7 m/s during 1600 h annually (Figure 18.21). This requires high power, high efficiency turbines that are today available on the market.
It is proposed to first build a farm of the capacity of 100 MWe that would require 15,000 m2 of land. The farm can be subdivided into three or four sections to be built in different areas of the territory depending on the availability of the land. Each section will be connected to the grid.
Using 2 MWe turbines, the farm will include a total of 50 masts carrying 50 turbines. Additional masts are required for meteorology monitoring. Estimated annual production by the farm will be 150 GWh. Each farm will include transformers, switchgears and controls for connection to the grid.
A second farm of 100 MWe could be built at later stage, following similar examples, e.g. in North Africa (Figure 18.22).
The estimated cost for supply and construction of the wind farm and its interconnection to the grid is 160 million euros. This does not include the cost of land (purchase or lease).
A feasibility study will be required to measure the wind pattern in various areas, to determine the optimal location and to simulate the operation during a period of time. The type of generators will be identified and final calculation of a detailed cost of the plant will be established.
It is to be noted that in the Republic of Cyprus two private operators are operating two wind farms of the capacities of 82 and 31.5 MWe, respectively. The farms' electricity supply to the Electricity Authority of Cyprus is approximately 10% of their current generation capacity (1170 MWe).
The PV and the wind farms will supply power to the grid, the PV during the day and the wind farms as a function of wind availability.
A smart grid control system will be installed locally and on the grid to monitor control and distribute the power when power intermittence is experienced. This will be connected to the Kib-Tek SCADA system that is presently monitoring the company's power plants.
18.9.1.3. Pumped-storage plant
One of the major issues related to renewable energy is their intermittence at short (namely wind) and long (PV) terms. It is necessary to produce additional peak energy to compensate for the intermittency (as well as possible breakdowns) and electricity storage can solve this issue. The missing energy could be provided by storage.
However, electricity cannot be stored in large quantities. A technology that is mostly employed consists of ‘hydroelectric pumped storage’ in which water is pumped by an electrically driven pump into an upstream reservoir when the electricity price is cheaper (namely at night). When the peak demand requires it, the water is discharged into a turbo-generator producing electricity. Usually the generator is also employed as a pump.
Several hydroelectric pumped-storage plants have been built and are in operation in the Alps, as well as on hill areas in many countries and have demonstrated significant advantages in electricity management.
This concept could be realised at sea level on the northern coast of the TRNC and by building a reservoir located at an altitude of at least 150 m. Piping or a tunnel would connect the two structures (see Figure 18.23). A feasibility study needs to be carried out to evaluate the possibility of building the entire infrastructure as well as to size the plant and to select the equipment to install at sea level. Additional studies would also be required on the impact of seawater and marine organisms on the hydroelectric machinery. Estimated costs will then be evaluated.
A first pumped-storage plant of the capacity of 30 MWe using 26 m3/s of seawater was built on the island of Okinawa by the Japanese Electric Power Development and has been successfully in operation since 1999.
18.9.2. Comments on the feasibility of the project
This project has unique characteristics and requires attention to a certain number of issues:
1. The TRNC does not have legislation on foreign (private and public) investments in the energy sector. As the country is recognised and economically controlled only by Turkey, it is assumed that TRNC would be able to legislate (or be assisted by Turkey on this matter). The first barrier to overcome is to have the Turkish and the TRNC governments establish a framework to authorise investors to operate in the TRNC energy sector.
2. A second issue is related to subsidies on renewable energy. Renewables require subsidies under various forms as the production cost of the energy is generally higher than the fossil energy. Legislation (Renewable Energy Act) needs to be put in place to establish one or more forms of subsidies as this will render the investments feasible (and attractive) and make the electricity prices acceptable for consumers. It is to be noted that the Republic of Cyprus does not have any ground-based PV plants as the government does not provide any financial incentives for plants above 150 kWp.
3. Land accessibility is a major problem on the entire island. During the war and the migration of both communities, most of the land and properties were occupied. Locals and foreigners have built on most of the occupied lands, but no legal claims from both sides ever succeeded, as the TRNC is not recognised and international law cannot apply. The property register based in the Republic of Cyprus is of little help in identifying the real owner of the land that could be used for the plants. This barrier could be a major obstacle to lease or purchase land for the PV plants and the wind farms. Authorities of both republics shall cooperate to facilitate the identification of landowners and solve this complex issue.
4. The projects involve limited risks. The feasibility studies will evaluate all potential risks, a risk analysis will be quantified and quality assurance and quality control programmes will be introduced into the final design.
The equipment, both for PV and wind generators, is manufactured worldwide by experienced and highly competitive industries, and the quality is certified by international standards. Equipment costs are continuously decreasing and electricity generation is becoming more competitive. Experienced contractors will be selected competitively and bear full responsibility for the execution of the projects. Kib-Tek will be involved in the project as the most likely user of the electricity. A partnership with the government will be sought.
18.10. Conclusions
The electricity sector in the TRNC is in poor condition with continuous breakdowns and high emissions levels from the fossil-fired plants. The existence and the experience of the successful operation of the Serhatköy PV plant could be a motivation for the government and Kib-Tek to support this programme and allow investors to finance the new renewable energy programme.
This project, if realised, will improve the electricity sector and will provide a larger production of renewable electricity that will be able to reduce emissions to an acceptable level. In the short term, the TRNC population will benefit from more reliable electricity. This will facilitate investments and the increase of the GDB per capita. In the medium-long term, it can be expected that further agreements will be established with the Republic of Cyprus and, among other, an improved interconnected electricity system will facilitate power exchanges.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Ahmet Dargin, Kamil Direl and Guzen Bahar of Kib-Tek for their invaluable assistance during the conception of the Serhatköy photovoltaic project.
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