SECTION 5.0

Implications of Findings, Directions for Future Research, and Overall Conclusions

5.1 Implications of Findings

5.1.1 Significance of Emotional Intelligence and Empathy for Key Project Competences

Findings from study one reported here found that the emotional intelligence ability of using emotions to facilitate thinking was significantly associated with the project manager competence of teamwork. The overall measure of EI was also associated with the project manager competence of managing conflict. In both instances, this was after controlling for both cognitive ability and personality. Despite limitations associated with the use of self-report measures, these findings do point towards emotional intelligence abilities as offering some explanation to account for differences in performance of these specific competences. These measures accounted for a further 7% and 6% of variation in these competences after personality. These contributions are deemed significant, given the wide range of factors potentially associated with performing these competences. However they do need to be placed in context given that, in both instances, personality was found to account for far greater variation in both teamwork (13%) and managing conflict (20%). Previously, Ilarda and Findlay (2007), using a self-report measure of emotional intelligence derived from Mayer et al.'s (1990) four-ability conceptualization of emotional intelligence (the SUEIT: Palmer & Stough, 2001), found that the total EI score accounted for a further 4% variance in the propensity for teamwork, after the 22% they found for personality. Personality differences would, therefore, seem to be far greater predictors for these two competences. It would seem logical to conclude that certainly, in terms of implications for selecting project managers to perform in projects where these competences are a premium, agencies or organizations would do better to screen based on personality differences in the first instance, with emotional intelligence providing a subsidiary mechanism.

However, this is of little help to those organizations considering how best to improve the performance of project managers in these competence areas, given that personality is a relatively stable set of individual characteristics. Instead the finding that emotional intelligence does contribute to both of these competence areas does suggest potential avenues for organizations to consider in terms of implementing developmental strategies for improving these competences possibly through improving the emotional intelligence of project managers. This is where the positive relationships found here between EI and these competences have the greatest significance, given arguments that these emotional intelligence abilities may be susceptible to development through organizationally sponsored interventions (Clarke, 2006a; Wong, Foo, Wang, & Wong, 2007).

The finding that emotional empathy was associated with the project manager competence described here as “attentiveness” is also significant. A number of studies have suggested that empathy is capable of development through training and development interventions (Erera, 1997; Herbeck & Yammarino, 1990), again suggesting that this may offer a further route for improving project managers’ competence in this area. Given the emphasis being placed on these behaviors for building strong inter-personal relationships within projects, short-term education and development programs that combine a focus on both emotional intelligence and empathy may result in some clear benefits.

5.1.2 Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership

The study found that the emotional intelligence ability of using emotions to facilitate thinking accounted for a further 4% in variation in both the transformational leadership behaviors of idealized influence and individualized consideration after controlling for both cognitive ability and personality. Again, notwithstanding limitations associated with the study design, these findings are significant in that they join the growing body of findings suggesting that emotional intelligence abilities are closely associated with performing this particular type of leadership behavior (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Leban & Zulauf, 2004) and indeed does make an independent contribution beyond either cognitive ability or personality (c.f. Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003).

Leadership involves many types of different behaviors and can be understood from a wide range of perspectives (Northouse, 2003); however, it is the close association of transformational leadership with managing change and ambiguity that makes it particularly relevant for projects (Bommer, Rich, & Rubin, 2005; Eisenbach, Watson, & Pillai, 1999). A number of studies, for example, have found this form of leadership to be associated with organizational ambidexterity (Nemanich & Vera, 2009) a concept closely associated with innovation and change, as well as within volatile conditions, such as those within networks and alliances (Waldman & Yammarino, 1999). To the extent that projects reflect similar conditions, the finding that the emotional ability of using emotions to facilitate thinking is associated with these transformational leadership dimensions again suggests that developing the EI of project managers may offer significant benefits through its potential capacity to improve transformational leadership behaviors.

However, it should be borne in mind that, to date, there have been mixed results regarding the significance of transformational leadership within project contexts. Keller (2006) studied 118 research and development project teams from five firms. He found transformational leadership predicted 1-year-later technical quality, schedule performance, and cost performance; and 5-year-later profitability and speed to market. By contrast, Keegan and Hartog (2004), in their study of project managers who also had line manager responsibilities, found that transformational leadership correlated positively with commitment and motivation in the line team, but there was no significant link within the project team. They suggested that, although the performance of these leadership behaviors were the same in both contexts, their effects appear to be diluted or have less effect in project contexts. Similarly, Strang (2005), in his case study of four project leaders, found that project leadership did not always require strong transformational leadership behavior to produce effective outcomes.

Elsewhere, a number of authors suggested that there may be boundary conditions connected to transformational leadership that is associated with the type of system, goals pursued, and dynamism of the context (Mumford, 2003; Mumford & Licuanan, 2004; Mumford, Scott, Gaddis, & Strange, 2002; Osborn & Marion, 2009; Pawar & Eastman, 1997). Osborn and Marion's (2009) study of transformational leadership in network alliances, for example, offers further support for the notion that leadership within such systems is about creating order from chaos rather than focused on motivation. To the extent that some projects may reflect contexts with greater uncertainty associated with “near-edge chaos,” the importance of transformational leadership, and therefore its association with emotional intelligence, may be of less significant.

5.1.3 Developing the Emotional Intelligence Abilities of Project Managers

This study found support for the positive impact of a 2-day training program on the emotional intelligence ability of understanding emotions in a sample of 53 UK project managers 6 months following attendance on training. This relates to an individual's understanding of how different situations, behaviors, and events can give rise to particular emotional responses in themselves and in others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). This ability has been suggested as important in work contexts as emotional knowledge of this kind can assist individuals to better negotiate social encounters and to use this knowledge in the proactive building of interpersonal relationships (Lopes et al., 2003, 2004). It has also been suggested as important in leadership contexts for knowing when and how to use effect in order to stimulate creativity, optimism, and generate excitement among followers in the pursuit of goals (George, 2000; Prati et al., 2003). Emotions play a significant role in shaping attitudes and behaviors at work (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). A knowledge of how different emotions are generated and how they can influence attitudes and behaviors is likely to offer project managers distinct advantages within contexts where they are dependent on building commitment and trust rapidly in order for individuals to work effectively together within project contexts (Bresnen & Marshall, 2000; Burgess & Turner, 2000; Hartman, 2000). However, the results suggest that the impact of training on this ability may not be seen immediately and it is likely to be some months before any improvements can be detected. It may be that although training can provide an initial self-awareness of the importance of emotions, the actual processes associated with its development continue taking place after training through on-the-job learning mechanisms (Clarke, 2006a). This would seem to correspond with other studies that have found developments in ability-derived measures of EI within team learning contexts (Clarke, 2007b; Groves, McEnrue & Shen, 2006; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003).

5.1.4 Improving the Performance of Emotional Intelligence Abilities of Project Managers

A further finding from the evaluation of the training program is that training can impact in two ways. The first as described previously, is its potential to serve as a basis for further development of particular EI abilities. The second major impact is its potential for improving the motivation of trainees to use their existing abilities that comprise emotional intelligence. Given that performance comprises both ability and motivation components (Porter & Lawler, 1968), this in itself is a major benefit of attending training such as that described here. Previous research has suggested that the effects of EI on performance may well be more indirect than direct in nature, such that individuals must not only have EI abilities, but they must be motivated to use them (Rode et al., 2007). It is feasible then that improvements in EI-related performance may be found not as a result of improvements in EI abilities, but through improving the motivation of project managers to use these specific abilities. This in itself may be sufficient reason to invest in training programs, even if actual abilities themselves are not found to improve.

5.1.5 Considerations for Designing Emotional Intelligence Ability—Development Interventions

The findings from the study suggest that, as far developing the emotional intelligence ability of understanding emotions is concerned, organizations wishing to develop project managers’ abilities in this area might achieve similar positive results if they adopt identical strategies to the design of the training program to those outlined here. Key aspects associated with the design of the training program included: (1) opportunities for participating in structured practice sessions that required participants to consider how emotional abilities may be used in their roles as project managers; (2) practicing EI-associated behaviors and then receiving feedback; and (3) observing others during role plays and simulations. The use of these specific development strategies promote learning and strengthen self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986).

However, factors outside the training program itself may also exert some effects that potentially influence whether EI abilities may develop, once trainees return on the job. In particular, the wider social environment is likely to impact on opportunities that are available for trainees to discuss and subsequently use emotional information, which feasibly might also influence subsequent EI ability development. A major factor may be the characteristics of emotionally competent group norms (Druskat & Wolff, 2001) associated with either the organizational culture or project contexts which could place limitations or constraints on opportunities for further EI development (Clarke, 2006a). This would suggest that wherever possible, EI development activities are best undertaken with individuals based within the same teams or working together in the same project, in order to maximize opportunities for developing appropriate group norms to support ongoing EI development.

5.1.6 Impact of Emotional Intelligence Training on Project Manager Competences and Performance

There have been criticisms of competence-based approaches to defining the professional body of knowledge necessary for project management (Ruuska & Vartiainen, 2003). For many, these criticisms mirror those which can be found more widely in the management literature generally (Johnson, Lorenz, & Lundrall, 2002; Lewis, 1998; Roger & Philip, 1997), in that competences tend to adopt a reductionist approach to defining the knowledge base that may be required for effective project management. Supporting this view are a number of studies that show, despite a growing body of knowledge, its effective implementation can be highly problematic (Williams, 1999, 2005). Although this draws attention to questions of implementation and is perhaps an insufficient argument in itself for challenging their utility (Crawford, 2005; El-Sabaa, 2001), this does, nonetheless, draw attention to the extent to which project management has tended to adopt overly rationalistic and functionalist perspectives in understanding the roles and work undertaken or enacted within project management.

Ruuska and Vartiainen (2003) argue for the need to recognize the notion of collective competences that are the property of the project management team. Based upon a situated learning perspective (e.g., Lave & Wenger, 1991), this approach recognizes how explicit knowledge, as represented by a set of professional management competences, fails to sufficiently address the procedural or tacit knowledge that project managers need to carry out their work or implement their knowledge. This inevitably draws attention to the specific context in which project managers are operating, as exerting a significant influence on how they carry out their tasks (or implement their knowledge). A significant component of this context is the social network or relational field surrounding the project manager, which will affect how they are able to obtain, share, and interpret the knowledge they rely on for achieving project success. Given such considerations, any expectations that interventions designed to develop emotional intelligence necessarily will result in improvements in these key competence areas may need to be treated with some degree of caution.

However, beyond merely those specific project manager competences examined here, the finding that emotional intelligence abilities can be enhanced and the use of such abilities improved through training, clearly has much wider implications for enhancing project managers’ performance. For example, an awareness of others’ emotions within projects should help project managers in understanding others’ needs and help with team bonding. Such bonding and close interpersonal ties can help build trust, resolve conflict, and promote closer cooperation (Jones & George, 1998; McAllister, 1995). Understanding how events in projects can trigger specific emotional responses that then impact on performance can assist project managers in planning, setting, and communicating tasks (Jordan, Ashkanasy, Hartel, & Hooper 2002). These all represent areas which have been cited in the literature as key elements associated with successful outcomes in projects (Kerzner, 2001; Lester, 1998; Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996; Pinto & Slevin, 1988; Randolph & Posner, 1988; Taborda, 2000). Elsewhere, it has also been found that positive effect among construction project managers was a key factor associated with their coping and adjustment to dealing with stress, thereby avoiding psychological problems (Haynes & Love, 2004). Beyond project effectiveness, it would seem likely that there may well be other major gains that could be made in terms of wider health and well-being factors of those involved in projects. Together these suggest a rich vein of further research to identify the various ways in which emotional intelligence might impact projects.

5.2 Directions for Future Research

The findings from these two pilot research studies examining emotional intelligence in projects suggest that (1) EI abilities and empathy have additional explanatory power to predict project manager's competence in the areas of teamwork, attentiveness, and managing conflict, as well as in the transformational leadership dimensions of idealized influence and individualized consideration; and (2) training seems to have a positive impact on the development and use of emotional intelligence by project managers. Based on these findings, further research seems warranted that use more robust methodologies in order to confirm the significant relationships found here. Firstly, the use of self-report measures of project manager competences is a limitation of this research that future studies should seek to improve upon. The use of supervisor ratings of performance in these areas can provide more valid measures. However, more objective means for measuring the project manager competences of teamwork, attentiveness, and conflict management would be preferable in order to confirm the relationships between emotional intelligence abilities, empathy, and these particular competences. Previous studies in conflict management, for example, have assessed this competence through videotaped performance simulations which could be adapted for project management contexts (Maher, 1986; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999). Similarly, in relation to transformational leadership, the use of ratings from others involved in a project combined with supervisory ratings would offer an advance on the methodology employed here.

Next, although it is intuitive to consider that differences in emotional abilities may account for variations in particular project manager competences, it is possible that proficiency in such competences could lead to these emotional intelligence abilities being enhanced. Future studies that employ a longitudinal design may reveal insights into the direction of causality here. In addition to strengthening the methodological approach of assessing project manager competences and transformational leadership, future studies should also seek to identify whether the significant relationships found here can be replicated using much larger populations. This will increase the power of statistical tests to detect relationships. There is also a need to identify whether emotional intelligence abilities are associated with other key project manager behaviors associated with successful project outcomes. In particular, the use of current items of competence, drawn from the PMI Project Manager Competency Development Framework (PMI, 2007) relating to communication, were found to be far too broad in scope to be used to underpin a satisfactory measure of communication, which might be expected to be associated with emotional intelligence. Future research should therefore make use of other measures available in the literature that could more effectively capture emotional and social communication in order to determine relationships here.

There is also a need to identify more clearly the extent to which the project manager behaviors, thought to be associated with project effectiveness and associated with emotional intelligence abilities, actually account for variations in project outcomes. This should involve researchers specifying a priori, which specific project manager competences or behaviors are likely to be more important within differing project contexts. A major area of research here involves identifying how differences in managing change, complexity, and ambiguity may be defining features which affect the relative influence of emotional intelligence. Given empirical findings elsewhere, suggesting that emotional intelligence may differentiate how individuals manage change (Higgs & Rowland, 2002; Groves, 2006) and theoretical propositions suggesting that emotional intelligence may influence how individuals respond to change (George & Jones, 2001; Huy, 1999, 2002), this would seem to warrant further research.

There is also far more research needed to examine the impact of training and development interventions specifically on emotional intelligence abilities. Again, future studies should attempt to determine whether the positive effects found here for attendance on EI training can be replicated using larger samples. Findings from this research have suggested that training results in the actual development of one of the four emotional abilities which forms part of the EI ability model, that relating to understanding emotions. This may have been due to the focus and content of the training where there was considerable emphasis in this emotional ability domain. It may be that short-duration training programs, such as the one described here which are more clearly targeted towards one emotional ability, may offer a greater chance of success, as opposed to those which seek to address all four abilities within such short durations. Future research should therefore investigate the extent to which training targeted to individual emotional abilities is effective. Based on qualitative data, the evaluation here also suggested that training may result in improvements in EI ability performance, due to its impact on project managers’ self-efficacy and motivation. Future studies should specifically investigate the impact of EI training on performance by including measures of self-efficacy to provide greater insights into its potential role here. Finally, there is a need to devise future studies which enable us to better understand the mechanisms by which emotional intelligence abilities potentially develop. Findings here suggested that actual development occurred during the 6 months after participants had attended training. This does suggest that there are additional factors outside training itself which play a significant role on EI development. Clarke (2006a) suggested that this may involve a number of processes associated with workplace or on-the-job learning. Future studies should therefore examine the post-training environment focusing on areas such as the nature of project learning climates, including opportunities for reflection and dialogue which relate to emotional experiences in projects. The nature of group norms that may influence how open project members are to addressing emotional information, as well as the intensity of emotional experiences on projects, are also fruitful areas to investigate that might reveal additional insights here.

5.3 Overall Conclusions

The behavioral dimensions of project management have increasingly moved from being seen as peripheral to now a far wider recognition of their central importance to the effectiveness of projects. Traditional approaches to project management, with its emphasis on rationality and planning, have generally ignored the extent to which projects as social and relational systems are major sources of emotion which influences the attitudes, cognitions, decisions, and behaviors of all those involved. Emotional intelligence is an aspect of individual difference that is associated with differences in how people identify, use, understand, and manage emotions that have been found to be associated with a wide range of important personal and work-related outcomes. Included in the latter have been areas such as communication, teamwork, managing conflict, and leadership. Projects represent newer forms of work organization, which have been suggested among other things to place particular emphasis on individuals’ abilities to manage complexity and ambiguity, form strong interpersonal relationships within relatively short spaces of time, and successfully manage conflict situations that are more likely to arise given the nature of such work systems. Emotional intelligence is widely thought by many to potentially offer distinct advantages for individuals working within projects, given findings from wider research. To date, however, there have been relatively few studies that have specifically investigated emotional intelligence within project contexts. Although a number of these have shown some promising results, there are significant limitations due to problems associated with the way in which emotional intelligence has been measured in these studies and the failure to control for both general mental ability and personality, which make it difficult to draw satisfactory conclusions regarding the actual impact of emotional intelligence in these areas.

This pilot research involved two studies that sought to further our understanding of the role emotional intelligence may play specifically within project contexts by using a measure of emotional intelligence that has received the most support within the literature as capturing a unique and distinct area of individual difference. The first study found significant relationships between emotional intelligence ability measures and empathy with the project manager competences of teamwork, managing conflict, and attentiveness. The second study found positive effects for participation in a 2-day EI training program 6 months later on the emotional intelligence ability of understanding emotions. The results from the qualitative data also suggested that the training may well have impacted on EI performance more generally through increasing the self-efficacy and motivation of trainees. Notwithstanding, limitations associated with the approach used to measure project manager competences in the study, the findings from this pilot research provide further support for the growing literature, which suggests that emotional intelligence may be of particular significance for working in and managing projects. Of major significance, the positive results found for the impact of training suggest that the utility of the emotional intelligence concept for projects is not merely limited to considerations of selecting individuals that may perform more effectively where such competences are deemed a premium. Instead, the results suggest that organizations could improve project manager competences in these specific areas through development interventions that are designed to target emotional intelligence. The results from this pilot research suggest that further research studies in project contexts using the ability-derived construct of emotional intelligence may offer further insights into understanding individual factors that may be associated with the effectiveness of projects.