Chapter 2
Identifying the Major Elements of a Sentence
IN THIS CHAPTER
Finding verbs in statements and questions
Distinguishing between action and linking verbs
Adding meaning with helping verbs
Locating the subject in every type of sentence
Forming noun plurals
Identifying complements and objects
Cops trying to crack a case often create a line-up. A possible suspect appears with several other people who could not have committed the crime. Behind one-way glass, a witness stares at the group and then chooses — That’s him! When you crack a sentence, you face a line-up too — the words in the sentence. In this chapter, you practice identifying the major criminals … er, I mean elements of a sentence: the verb, the subject, and the complement or object. Because subjects are often nouns and you frequently need to determine whether you have a singular or plural subject, I throw in a little practice with noun plurals as well.
Going to the Heart of the Matter: The Verb
Before you do anything to a sentence — write, analyze, or edit — you have to locate its heart, also known as the verb. The words that express action or state of being are verbs; they pump meaning into a sentence, just as a real heart pumps blood into veins and arteries. In this section, you practice identifying verbs, sorting out types of verbs, and examining the role of helping verbs. For information on another important verb characteristic, tense, read Chapter 4.
Treasure hunt: Finding the verb
To find the verb, think about the meaning of the sentence. Ask two questions: What’s happening? What is, was, or will be? The first question gives you an action verb, and the second question yields a linking verb. An action verb expresses action. (How shocking!) Action verbs aren’t always energetic, however. Sleep, dream, realize, and meditate are all action verbs. Think of a linking verb as a giant equal sign. This sort of verb links a person, place, or thing to a description or an identity. In the sentence “Mary is tired,” is links Mary and tired. Most linking verbs are forms of the verb be or one of its close cousins (seem or remain, for example). Verbs that express sensation — taste, feel, sound, and smell, for instance — are also linking verbs if they can be replaced by a form of be without completely changing the meaning of the sentence.
You may find more than one verb in a sentence. For example, this morning I showered and washed my hair. In that last sentence, showered and washed are both verbs. Sometimes a single verb is formed with two or more words. Keep your eye out for forms of the verb do and have, as well as the word will. They may show up next to the verb or a couple of words away. You have to locate all the parts of a verb in order to understand how the sentence functions. (More on other types of multi-word verbs appears in “Aiding and abetting: Helping verbs” later in this section.)
Q. Find the verb(s) in this sentence and indentify each as linking (LV) or action (AV):
Gloria was a tennis fanatic, so she rushed out to buy tickets to the championship match.
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A. was (LV), rushed (AV). This sentence makes two statements, one about Gloria herself and one about her actions. To locate the verbs, ask your questions:
What’s happening? rushed This is an action verb because it explains what Gloria did.
What is, was, or will be? was This is a linking verb because it explains Gloria’s personality, “linking” Gloria to tennis fanatic.
Did you stumble over to buy? A verb with to in front is called an infinitive, the head of a verb family. Oddly, infinitives don't function as verbs in a sentence. If you reread the statement about Gloria, you see that the sentence doesn't say that she bought tickets. She rushed. Maybe she was successful, and maybe she wasn't. Either way, to buy is an infinitive, not a verb.
Q. Identify the verbs in the sentence and label them linking (LV) or action (AV):
My cat sleeps all day because he has always been lazy.
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A. sleeps (AV), has been (LV). When you ask What's happening? the answer is sleeps, so you know that sleeps is a verb. Even though it doesn't require much energy, sleep is something you do, so it's an action verb. When you ask What is, was, or will be? the answer is has been. That verb, like all forms of be, is a linking verb. Did you include always? The word gives a time range, not a state of being or an action. It's an adverb, not a verb, even though it's tucked inside the verb has been.
1 The fire engine raced down the street.
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2 Around the curve, just ahead of the railroad tracks, stood seven donkeys.
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3 One of the donkeys, frightened by the noise of the siren, ran away.
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4 Another looked worried but did not move.
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5 Was he brave or was he determined to defend his herd?
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6 Most likely, the animal did not notice the noise or did not care.
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7 Did you know that the donkey was eating George's lawn?
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8 George's house was not on fire, but several others on his street were burning.
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9 George left the donkey alone and went inside for an extra-long lunch.
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10 Because of the donkey, George did not mow his lawn.
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Choosing the correct verb for negative expressions
Three little letters — not — turn a positive comment (“I like your boots”) to a negative one (“I do not like your boots”). Apart from the fashion critique, what do you notice about the negative statement? The verb changes from like to do like. You need that extra part because “I not like” isn’t proper English. Negative verbs don’t always rely on a form of the verb do. Sometimes have, has, or had does the job. Sentences with a be verb can turn negative without any help at all. In this section you can try your hand at not creating the wrong negative verb.
Q. Rewrite the sentence as a negative expression.
Mark's acting received an Academy Award.
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A. Mark's acting did not receive an Academy Award. Two things change when the positive verb (received) becomes negative (did not receive). Received, a past-tense form, turns into the basic, no-frills, bare infinitive (receive). The helping verb did pairs with it. As you probably noticed, not is tucked between the two parts of this verb, its usual spot.
11 My phone buzzes like a bee.
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12 Sheila is in love with bees.
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13 She wanted to be a beekeeper.
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14 Looking at bee hives gives her hives.
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15 The bee flying near our picnic table left Sheila alone all afternoon.
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16 Sheila will ask me to change my ringtone.
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Questioning with verbs
In many languages, you say the equivalent of “Ate the cookie?” to find out whether your friend gobbled up a treat. In English, you nearly always need a helping verb and a subject (the person or thing you’re talking about) to create a question: “Did you eat the cookie?” (The verbs to be and to have are the only exceptions.) Notice that the combo form (did eat) is different from the straight past tense (ate). Other question-creators, italicized in these examples, change the tense: “Will you eat my cookie?” or “Do you eat cookies?” (This last one suggests an ongoing action.) In nearly all questions, the subject follows the first (or only) verb.
Rewrite the statement so that it becomes a question. Add words or rearrange the sentence as needed.
Q. You found a wallet on the ground.
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A. Did you find a wallet on the ground? The helping verb did comes before you in this question. The past-tense form, found, changes to find, the basic, bare infinitive.
17 You took the wallet to the police station.
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18 The cops always accept lost items.
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19 The wallet was stolen.
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20 The detectives seemed interested.
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21 They noticed seven credit cards, each with a different name.
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22 The photo on the license matches a mug shot.
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23 The police will act swiftly.
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24 You want the reward for recovering stolen property.
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Aiding and abetting: Helping verbs
In addition to has, have, had, and the be verbs (am, is, are, was, were, and so on) you can attach a few other helpers to a main verb, and in doing so, change the meaning of the sentence slightly. Consider hiring the following helpers:
- Should and must add a sense of duty. Notice the sense of obligation in these two sentences: “David should put the ice cream away before he eats the whole thing.” “David must reduce his cholesterol, according to his doctor.”
- Can and could imply ability. Could is the past tense of can. Choose the tense that matches the tense of the main verb or the time period expressed in the sentence, as in these examples, “If Hanna can help, she will.” or “Courtney could stray from the beaten path, depending on the weather.”
- May and might add possibility to the sentence. Strictly speaking, might is for past events, and may for present, but these days people interchange the two forms: “I may go to the picnic if I can find a bottle of ant-killer.” “I told Courtney that she might want to bring some insect repellent.”
- Would usually expresses a condition or willingness. This helper explains under what circumstances something may happen. (“I would have brought the cat had I known about the mouse problem.”) Would may also express willingness. (“He would bait the trap.”) Would sometimes communicates repeated past actions. (“Every Saturday he would go to the pet store for more mouse food.”) The present tense of would, the helping verb will, may also indicate a condition in the present or future. (“I will go if I can find a free ticket.”)
Add a helper to the main verb. The information in parentheses after the fill-in-the-blank sentence explains what meaning the sentence should have.
Q. Lisa said that she __________________ consider running for Parks Commissioner, but she hasn’t made up her mind yet. (possibility)
A. might or may. The might or may shows that Lisa hasn’t ruled out a run.
25 The mayor, shy as ever, said that she __________________ go to the tree-planting ceremony only if the press agreed to stay outside the forest. (condition)
26 Kirk, a reporter for the local radio station, __________________ not agree to any conditions, because the station manager insisted on eyewitness coverage. (ability)
27 Whenever he met with her, Kirk __________________ always urge the mayor to invite the press to special events, without success. (repeated action)
28 The mayor __________________ make an effort to be more open to the press. (duty)
29 Lisa, who writes the popular “Trees-a-Crowd” blog, explained that she __________________ rely on her imagination to supply details. (possibility)
30 Lisa knows that Kirk __________________ leap to fame based on his tree-planting report, and she doesn’t want to miss an important scoop. (ability)
31 All good reporters __________________ know that if a tree falls or is planted in the forest, the sound is heard by a wide audience only if a radio reporter is there. (duty)
32 Sound engineers, on the other hand, __________________ skip all outdoor events if they __________________ do so. (condition, ability)
Zeroing in on the Subject
Every sentence needs a subject — the who or what performing the action or existing in the state of being expressed in the sentence. Subjects are usually nouns (words that name people, places, things, or ideas) or pronouns (words such as he, it, who, and so forth that substitute for nouns). Before you search for the subject, find the verb. Then place “Who?” or “What?” before the verb. For example, suppose the verb is had parked. Your subject questions are Who had parked? What had parked? The answer is the subject.
The subject often, but not always, appears before the verb. Don’t scout location. Use logic and the questions and you’ll find what you’re looking for — the subject. Also, not every subject appears in the sentence. In commands (Take out the garbage now, for example), the subject is you, because the listener or reader is the one who is supposed to take out the garbage. Lucky you!
Locate the subject(s) of each verb in the sentence.
Q. Angelo raided his piggy bank because his car needed a new muffler.
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A. Angelo, needed. In this sentence you find two verbs, raided and needed. When you ask who raided?, the answer is Angelo raided. Angelo is the subject of the verb raided. (You can ask what raided? also, but that question has no answer.) When you ask who needed?, you get no answer. The question what needed? gives you car needed, so car is the subject of the verb needed.
33 Ana and Max spend all their free time in the library.
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34 Max has grown quite tall, but he has not adjusted to his new size.
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35 Once he reached under a library table to pick up a book Ana had dropped.
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36 Max stood up too quickly and smashed his head on the bottom of the table.
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37 There is a dent in the table now.
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38 Did you see a dent in Max's head?
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39 Max's thick hair and equally thick skull protect him from most head injuries.
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40 When Max hit it, the table fell over and broke Ana's toe.
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When one isn’t enough: Forming noun plurals
When I was in elementary school, the only spell check was the teacher’s ruler. “Don’t you know you’re supposed to change the y to i and add es?” Miss Hammerhead would inquire just before the ruler landed (Bam!) on a pupil’s head. Hammerhead (not her real name) was teaching spelling, but she also was explaining how to form the plural of some nouns, the grammatical term for words that name people, places, things, or ideas. Here are Miss Hammerhead’s lessons, minus the weaponry:
- Regular plurals pick up an s. For instance, one snob/two snobs and a dollar/two billion dollars.
- For nouns ending in s, sh, ch, and x, tack on es to form the plural unless the noun has an irregular plural. For example, kindness/kindnesses, splash/splashes, catch/catches, and hex/hexes. I tell you more about irregular plurals in a minute.
- For nouns ending in ay, ey, oy, simply add an s. Monkey becomes monkeys and boy changes to boys.
- For nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es. Butterfly/butterflies and mystery/mysteries are two such examples.
- Hyphenated nouns become plural by changing the most important word. You can have two mothers-in-law, but no mother-in-laws, because mother is the defining characteristic.
- When making the plural of a proper name, add s or es. Don’t change any letters even if the name ends with a consonant-y combo (Smithy, perhaps). Just add s for the Smiths and the Smithys. If the name already ends in s, sh, ch, or x (Woods, for example), you can add es (Woodses).
- Irregular nouns cancel all bets: Anything goes! Sometimes the noun doesn’t change at all, so the plural and singular forms are exactly the same (fish/fish deer/deer); other times the noun does change (leaf/leaves and child/children). When you’re unsure about an irregular plural, you can check the dictionary. The definition lists the plural form for each noun.
At the end of each sentence is a noun in parentheses. Write the plural in the blank, as in this example:
Q. When she was angry, Jennifer often sent dinner __________________ flying across the room. (plate)
A. plates. Love those regular plurals! Just add s.
41 Jennifer works at one of the local mental-health __________________. (clinic)
42 Jennifer refers to these establishments as “brain __________________.” (house)
43 The town eccentric, Jennifer has dyed several __________________ of her hair light green. (thatch)
44 Jennifer sees her unusual hair color as appropriate for all __________________. (woman)
45 Few people know that Jennifer, an accomplished historian and mathematician, has created a series of __________________ on the Hundred Years’ War. (graph)
46 Jennifer also knows a great deal about the role of __________________ in colonial America. (turkey)
47 The __________________ of envy at Jennifer’s scholarship were quite loud. (sigh)
48 However, her paper did not impress her __________________. (brother-in-law)
49 Some __________________ in the Sullivan family opt for veterinary school. (child)
50 Danny went to dental school so he could work with __________________ instead of dogs. (tooth)
Adding Meaning: Objects and Complements
Three important elements — direct objects, indirect objects, and subject complements — don’t always show up in a sentence, but when they do, they add information to the idea begun by the subject and the verb. To locate objects and subject complements, keep these points in mind:
- After an action verb, you may find a word — or several words — answering the question whom? or what? begun by the verb. That’s the direct object. For example, in the sentence Lulu hates sports, hates is the action verb and Lulu is the subject of hates. Ask Lulu hates whom? and you get no answer. Ask Lulu hates what? and the answer is sports. Sports is the direct object of the verb hates.
- Action verbs also occasionally appear with a direct object and an indirect object. In the sentence Lulu gave me an annoyed glance, the subject-verb combination is Lulu gave. The direct object of the verb gave is glance, which answers the question Lulu gave what? The indirect object questions are to whom? to what? So now you have Lulu gave an annoyed glance to whom? The answer is to me, and me is the indirect object. (You don’t get an answer when you ask to what.)
- After a linking verb, simply ask who? or what? to find the subject complement. In the sentence Lulu is a terrible basketball player, the subject-verb combo is Lulu is. Now ask Lulu is who? Lulu is what? The answer is a terrible basketball player. The most important word in that answer is player, and player is the subject complement.
Most of the time the distinction between objects and complements doesn’t matter. When a pronoun completes the thought begun by the subject and verb, however, you have to be alert. In formal English, the same type of pronoun that acts as a subject also acts as a subject complement. Subject pronouns and object pronouns don’t always match. For more about subject and object pronouns, check out Chapter 6.
Locate the objects and subject complements in each sentence. Underline each one and label it as a direct object (DO), an indirect object (IO), or a subject complement (SC).
Q. Lulu hates baseball too even though she is very athletic.
A. baseball (DO), athletic (SC). Hates is a linking verb. Ask Lulu hates whom or what? and baseball pops up as the answer. Baseball is the direct object. Is is a linking verb, so when you ask she is who or what? the answer, athletic, is a subject complement.
51 Lola, during the annual softball game between two branch offices of our company, swung the bat with all her strength.
52 She is extremely strong because she exercises for 2 hours every day.
53 The bat hit the ball and lifted it over the outfield fence.
54 There was wild joy in our cheering section!
55 The applause always sounds louder when Lola plays.
56 Compared to Lola, the next batter seemed small and weak.
57 He is the president of the company, and he alternates between branch-office teams every year.
58 The pitcher tossed the president a slow ball.
59 Who would challenge him?
60 The president smacked the ball a few feet, but he reached third base anyway.
Answers to Questions about Major Elements of a Sentence
Now that you’ve identified the major players in the sentence game, it’s time to tally up your score. Check your answers to see how you did.
1 raced (AV). Ask what’s happening? The answer is raced. Raced is an action verb.
2 stood (AV). Even though stood sounds like inaction, it’s still expressing what happens, so it’s an action verb answering the question What’s happening?
3 ran (AV). What’s happening? The frightened animal ran, that’s what’s happening! Ran is an action verb.
4 looked (LV), did move (AV). The sensory verb looked is a stand-in for was, so it’s a linking verb telling you about the donkey’s state of being. Did move, on the other hand, tells you what’s happening, so it’s an action verb. Are you wondering why not isn’t listed here? Not is not a verb. It’s an adverb. (For more on adverbs, turn to Chapter 8.)
5 was (LV), was (LV). Each of these verbs tells you about the donkey’s state of being, so they’re linking verbs.
6 did notice (AV), did care (AV). Negative statements often rely on forms of the verb to do. Here you find did notice and did care, both of which tell you what’s happening. They’re action verbs.
7 did know (AV), was eating (AV). Questions often need a form of the verb do, such as did in this sentence. Both verbs tell what’s happening (even though know is not a very energetic activity), so they’re action verbs.
8 was (LV), were burning (AV). The first part of this sentence describes the house, telling you its state of being, so was is a linking verb. The second part of the sentence tells you what the houses were doing (were burning), so were burning is an action verb.
9 left (AV), went (AV). Both verbs tell you what’s happening, so both are action verbs.
10 did mow (AV). Did you include not? Nope. Not is an adverb, not a verb. Did mow, on the other hand, tells you what’s happening, so it’s an action verb.
11 My phone does not buzz like a bee. The positive verb buzzes turns into does buzz in the negative, with not between the two parts of the verb.
12 Sheila is not in love with bees. With your sharp eyes, you probably noticed that no form of the verb do appears in this sentence. The verb be is special. (See Chapter 4 to find out exactly how special, and annoying, be can be.) A simple not does the job here.
13 She did not want to be a beekeeper. The past-tense verb form wanted turns to did want. Not completes the negative transformation.
14 Looking at bee hives does not give her hives. Here the present-tense form gives changes to does give, with not in between.
15 The bee flying near our picnic table did not leave Sheila alone all afternoon. The past-tense verb form left changes to did leave, which becomes negative with the addition of not. Were you confused by flying? Although flying expresses action, it isn’t the verb in this section. (For more information about this sort of “fake verb,” turn to Chapter 17.)
16 Sheila will not ask me to change my ringtone. The positive, future-tense verb form will ask needs no other helping verb. The not does the job when it’s tucked between will and ask.
17 Did you take the wallet to the police station? Typical question format: the two parts of the verb, did and take, are separated by the subject, you.
18 Do the cops always accept lost items? This one’s in present tense because the original statement contains the present-tense verb, accept.
19 Was the wallet stolen? Because this sentence is about state of being, expressed by a form of the verb be, you don’t need a helping verb here. However, the subject (wallet) should follow the verb.
20 Did the detectives seem interested? This one’s about a state of being, but the verb, to seem, needs the helping verb did to create a question.
21 Did they notice the seven credit cards, each with a different name? The helper did precedes the subject, they, in this question.
22 Does the photo on the license match a mug shot? Here you see the same pattern: helping verb (does), subject (photo), main verb (match).
23 Will the police act swiftly? The helper, will, changes position to create a question instead of a statement.
24 Do you want the reward for recovering stolen property? In this question, you add do to the main verb, want, to land in question territory.
25 would. The going is dependent upon the press arrangement. Thus would is the best choice.
26 could. The agreement wasn’t possible, so could wins the prize.
27 would. This helping verb expresses repeated actions in the past.
28 should. Once you imply duty, should is the helper you want.
29 may or might. Lisa, if she’s in the mood, will cover the tree-cutting without seeing it. This possibility is expressed by the helpers may or might.
30 can. You need to express ability in the present tense, which can can do.
31 should. Gotta get that duty in, and should does the job.
32 would, could. Would expresses a condition, and could adds ability to the sentence.
33 Ana, Max. The verb in this sentence is spend. When you ask who before that verb, the answer is Ana and Max. Ana and Max are both subjects of the verb spend.
34 Max, he. Who has grown? Max has grown. Max is the subject of the verb has grown. Who has adjusted? He has adjusted. He is the subject of the verb has adjusted. (Not isn’t part of the verb.)
35 he, Ana. Who reached? He reached. He is the subject of the verb reached. Who had dropped? Ana had dropped. Ana is the subject of the verb had dropped.
36 Max. This sentence has two verbs, stood and smashed. When you ask who stood? the answer is Max. You get the same answer for who smashed? Max is the subject of both verbs.
37 dent. Did I catch you with this one? There is never a subject. (Neither is here, which often appears in similar sentences.) The real subject, which you find with the usual questions, appears after the verb. What is? A dent is. Dent is the subject of the verb is.
38 you. The verb in this sentence is did see. Ignore the fact that the sentence asks a question and ask the usual subject questions. Who did see? You did see. You is the subject of did see.
39 hair, skull. When you ask What? before the verb protect, the answer is hair and skull, both of which are subjects of the verb protect.
40 Max, table. Who hit? Max hit. Max is the subject of the verb hit. What fell and broke? The table, which is the subject of the verbs fell and broke.
41 clinics. For a regular plural, just add s.
42 houses. Regular plural here: Add an s.
43 thatches. For a noun ending in ch, add es.
44 women. This is an irregular plural.
45 graphs. Did I fool you? The h at the end of the noun doesn’t, all by itself, call for es. Only words ending in sh or ch require an added es in the plural form. For graph, a plain s will do.
46 turkeys. For nouns ending in ay, ey, and oy, add s to form a plural.
47 sighs. Regular plurals are fun; just add s.
48 brothers-in-law. To create the plural of a hyphenated word, add s to the most important word, which in this case is brother.
49 children. No s in sight, but children really is plural.
50 teeth. Irregular plurals wander all over the map. This one changes the vowels.
51 bat (DO). This sentence is long, but only one direct object shows up when you ask, Lola swung what? Lola swung the bat. Because swung is an action verb, bat is the direct object.
52 strong (SC). Is is a linking verb. Ask she is who or what? and the answer is she is strong. Strong is a subject complement.
53 ball (DO), it (DO). This sentence has two verbs, hit and lifted, both paired with the subject bat. Bat is an action verb. When you ask, bat hit whom or what? the answer is ball. When you ask bat lifted whom or what? the answer is it. Both are direct objects.
54 No objects or complements. Yes, this is a trick question. There is never a subject. In this sentence, joy is the subject. If you ask joy is who or what? you get no answer. No answer, so no complement or object.
55 louder (SC). Sounds is a linking verb, connecting the subject applause with louder, the subject complement.
56 small (SC), weak (SC). Seemed is a linking verb, a close relative of was, a member of the be verb family. When you ask batter seemed who or what? the answer is small and weak. They’re both subject complements.
57 president (SC). After the linking verb is you find the subject complement president. No complement or object follows the second verb, alternates.
58 president (IO), ball (DO). First ask the pitcher tossed whom or what? You may have been tempted to answer president, but the pitcher didn’t throw a person. The direct object is ball. Now ask the president tossed the ball to whom or what? The answer, president, is an indirect object.
59 him (DO). The verb is would challenge and the subject is who. When you ask who would challenge whom or what? the answer is him, a direct object.
60 ball (DO), base (DO). Ask the president smacked whom or what? The answer is ball, a direct object. He reached whom or what? The answer is base, a direct object.