The Kitchen of Meaning

To grasp the ever-changing cultural dialogue, an image-maker has to be ready to seize time's wonders. Generally this does not come easily. Being an artist entails making a long-term commitment to aesthetic and technical training in what French writer and theoretician Roland Barthes dubbed “the kitchen of meaning,” where one willingly toils to realize a bountiful visual roux. Hand-altered work allows photographers to prolong their interaction with the process and/or re-interpret past works, thereby redefining the temporal and/or technical architecture of the image. This shift in time enables the moment of exposure to act as a beginning rather than as an ending for imagemaking. This flexibility can expand the consciousness of a maker and give rise to an extended sense of reality that can articulate both an objective exterior and a subjective interior view of a subject. Hand-altered work can express how photography is an elastic process of discovery and invention and not just a fixed body of technical data that is permanently frozen at the moment of exposure. Hand-altered work may commingle at the juncture of what is real and what might be real, reminding us that the invisible and the intangible are as important as what we see in concrete reality. Such processes encourage an artistic and intellectual rethinking of the action between a matter-based and a mind-based interpretation of a subject, which can expand the interaction among the materials, the work, the maker, and the viewer.

Pushing beyond the Familiar to an Enhanced Reality

Hand alteration is a way to expand the photographic lexicon and is not meant to replace traditional modes of working. When hand-altering work, take the freedom to push and pull the ideas and materials until resistance is felt. Push on the confines of familiarity, but learn to stop before resistance turns into chaos. When one hits resistance to new ideas and methods, it indicates you are entering uncharted waters. There are no guides, instructions, or maps to offer direction. You are on your own. This enables you to know how far you can stretch the medium and yourself. Maintain a record of your experiments so the results can be duplicated and your knowledge shared. Keep in mind what Pablo Picasso said: “The eyes of an artist are open to a superior reality.”

Since there are fewer conventions in hand-altered practice than in regular methods, how does one find satisfaction? Your mind will quit circling and say YES to what has been created. During the act of making there may even be a dynamic haptic interchange between the artist and the materials, which physically culminates at completion. This is when you know it is time to cease working. Your own character is now intertwined with the piece. As the image is transformed, so are the maker and potential viewers.

Doing the Opposite: Creating a Doppelganger

Much of this book has been devoted to providing known pathways for the expressive photographic imagemaker. As soon as you have gained control over the medium and tools and are able to express what you desire, it is time to avoid getting bogged down by too many rules. Pretend to have a Doppelgänger, an apparitional double or counterpart, who does the opposite of what you normally do. Too much technical expertise can be as inhibiting as too little. Doing the opposite keeps one from being too complacent and judgmental. Reaching into the unknown is one way to grasp new possibilities. Keep a notebook of new ideas for future reference.

© Kevin Kline. More Stars #79, from the series More Stars Than The Sky, 2011-2015. 8×10 inches. Gelatin silver print with mixed media.

Try not to become smug with what you already know. Learning is a continuous process of waking up and focusing your attention on the subject at hand. It means giving in to possibilities and allowing yourself the opportunity to see what may not have been apparent or visible when you began the process.

The Anxiety of the New

When something new is created, it brings with it a sense of anxiety. This is because the new is not identifiable with our daily familiar world. Such anxious insecurity occurs when you are able to leave the beaten path and not yield to the comfort of habit, imitation, trend, or even praise. The new often produces resentment as it entails throwing over a previous set of working conventions and responses. Having blind faith in the ways of the past can lead to stagnant mediocrity that wallows in nostalgia. The New is dynamic and forces one to confront the past, discard its illusions, make corrections, and move forward in different, untried directions.

Not all new images and working methods will take you to the destination you seek. Often the act of doing something for the first time helps to uncover what will ultimately bring new structure to a vision. Stay focused on the imagemaking process itself, that vital interplay between alternative configurations and passions, rather than fixating on a particular form of closure. Each outcome can then be both a transitory hypothesis and a declaration of the will to know. One of the beauties of art making is that it can relinquish a closed system in which there is only one right way to do something in favor of an open approach that allows multiple correct answers to a question. Hand-altering work animates the imagemaker to feel free to transform the ingredients of imagination and physical existence into a collection of previously unseen appearances and structures. In his story “The Legend of the Sleepers,” Danilo Kis sums up this meditation about the past, present and future: “Oh, who can divide dreams from reality, day from night, night from dawn, memory from illusion.”¹

This chapter covers various key aspects of hand-altered work by dividing it into the following working methods: cameraless images, camera based photographs, darkroom-generated pictures, and postdarkroom work including making an artist book.

Photograms

A photogram is a cameraless, lensless image made by placing 2-D or 3-D objects directly on top of light-sensitive material and then exposing it. Conceptually, the photogram is entirely different from traditional camera images based on outer reality in which a photographer starts with everything and eliminates or subtracts anything that is not wanted in the frame (a process of subtractive composition). When making a photogram, an imagemaker begins with nothing except a blank piece of paper, like a painter approaching an empty canvas, and adds the necessary ingredients to make the final piece (a process of additive composition). Cameraless images can also be produced from an enlarger or digitally with a scanner (see Chapter 4).

© Thomas Brummett. Light Projection Variation #2, from the series The Infinities, 2013. 38×47 inches. Inkjet print. Galliere Karsten Greve, Paris.

The photogram plays with a viewer's expectations of what a photograph is supposed to look like. Although it appears on the surface to be a photograph, there is a sense of ambiguity and mystery, as a viewer attempts to understand the reality of the image.

The light source used to make the exposure can be straight-ahead, angled or even moving rather than perpendicular to and stationary with the light-sensitive material. When the image is developed, no exposure effects will be visible where an opaque object was completely covering the light-sensitive emulsion. What is created is a silhouette of the object when translucent or transparent objects are placed on the emulsion. Partial shadowing occurs under opaque objects that are not in complete contact with the emulsion creating a wide assortment of tones. Any area left uncovered will get the maximum exposure and hence be opaque without any discernible detail.

The early pioneers in search of a practical photographic process were Johann Schulze in 1727, Thomas Wedgwood and Humphry Davy in 1799, and William Henry Fox Talbot from 1834 through the mid-1840s. All of them worked with cameraless images, establishing it as the earliest means of making light-sensitive pictures. The technique did not see much application until Christian Schad, a Dadaist painter, revived it in 1918 to create abstract images that he called Schadographs. Within a short time, Man Ray countered with his Rayographs. In Berlin during the 1920s, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy followed suit with what we now refer to as photograms. The contributions of these three imagemakers helped to perfect and re-establish the photogram in the twentieth century.

© Thomas Barrow. Sexual Ecology, 1986. 26×25 inches. Gelatin silver print with stapled Polaroid SX-70 prints and spray lacquer paints.

What to Print on Opaque, Translucent, and Transparent Materials

Photograms can be made on any type of light-sensitive material. Black-and-white paper is a good place to begin experimentation. One can then move on to color paper and other materials such as cloth. Black-and-white paper is convenient and familiar, and it can be handled under normal safelight conditions. This makes it easier to arrange the objects in the composition.

Careful consideration must be given to the choice of objects used in making a photogram. The selection of materials is limitless. Go beyond the hackneyed approach of taking some coins and keys out of your pocket or purse. Consider using natural objects such as feathers, flowers, grass, leaves, plants, rocks, and sand. Try putting raw eggs or oil in a zip-lock bag to make fluid compositions. Objects such as glass and stencils offer additional avenues to pursue. If you do not find what you need, make it yourself. Start simply, and as you master the working technique, increase the complexity of the arrangements. Ink applied on a thin piece of glass or acetate and then overlaid on the paper and exposed can widen your field of ideas. Also try combining natural, human-made, homemade, opaque, translucent, and transparent objects with ink to form a composition.

Exposure Methods

Although the easiest way to make an exposure is by using the enlarger or room light as a source, it also offers the least in terms of visual variety in the final print. To increase the range of visual effects, use another source of exposure, such as an electronic flash or a small desk light with a flexible neck. Using a fractional power setting on the flash or very low-wattage bulbs (15 watts) will produce longer exposure times and thus provide more opportunity for manipulation. Fluorescent tubes will deliver a more diffused and softer image than a reflector bulb or flash. Using a light source at different angles to the paper will produce a wide range of results. Varying the intensity of the light or the distance of the light from the paper during exposure will help to create a wider range of tonality in the final print.

Another method is to use a penlight. Wrap opaque paper around the penlight to act as a simple aperture-control device, thus enabling you to have more precise control over the intensity and direction of the light. The penlight can be used like a drawing instrument to emphasize specific areas of exposure. It also may be attached to a string and swung above and around the paper to produce unusual exposure effects.

Rather than making a single exposure from one source, try a series of brief exposures that combine different angles and light sources. Also try moving as well as stationary exposures.

For repeatable results, without ruining the arrangement of objects, place a piece of glass on spacers above the printing surface. The glass should be slightly bigger than the paper being printed. Blocks of wood or film take-up reels can be used for spacers. Arrange the objects on the glass rather than directly on the paper. Define the exact printing area beneath the glass by using tape or a china marker to indicate where the corners of the paper should be positioned. After the objects are composed on the glass, turn off the white light and slide the photographic paper under the glass, lining it up with the corner marks. Before making the exposure, remove the spacers and carefully lower the glass on top of the paper. Be careful not to disturb any of the arranged items. Now expose the paper. If the exposure is made with the glass still up on spacers, the final image will be softer and less sharp. Box 12.1 provides the basic starting steps for making a photogram.

Photogram Combinations

The color of the completed image can be changed through toning (see Chapter 9). After the print has dried, additional alterations are possible by drawing or painting on the image. Photograms can be also produced on color negative and positive materials. They also can be combined with other photographic methods. For instance, try combining a camera-made image with a camera-less one. Try rephotographing the photogram and combining it with another cameraless image. Magazine pictures also can be combined with other cameraless materials. Magazines are a print-through technique, and both sides of the page will be visible (see Robert Heinecken's work in Chapter 1).

© Susan Evans. Dot to Dot Portrait, from the series Dot to Dot, 1992. 10×8 inches. Gelatin silver print.

Experimentation with the choice of objects, sources of exposure, different types of light-sensitive materials, and postdarkroom techniques will enable you to discover the possibilities photograms have to offer.

Making a Cliche-Verre

Obtain a piece of clean, clear glass that is a little larger than the size of the final print. 8×10 inches is a good minimum size; anything smaller makes it difficult to see what is being etched on the glass. Have the edges ground smooth to avoid glass cuts. Paint the glass with an opaque paint or varnish. Matte black spray paint also can be used. After the paint has dried, use a stylus (a sharp, pointed instrument such as an X-Acto knife, a heavy needle, a razor blade, or even a piece of rock or bone) to etch through the painted coating to the clear glass.

When the etching is finished, bring the glass into the darkroom. Under safelight conditions, lay it on top of a piece of unexposed black-and-white photographic paper. Make a print following normal working methods. As in photograms, try using different sources of light at a variety of angles to alter the look of the final image. The thickness of the glass will influence the clarity and sharpness of the final print. Thinner glass gives a sharper image. Generally, glass provides the smoothest and most concise line quality of any of the support materials.

Equipment

You need a camera with a B (bulb) or T (time) setting to make extended time exposures. With the B setting, you hold the shutter in the open position for the entire exposure. With the T setting, you press the shutter release once to open the shutter and then press it again at the end of the exposure to close it. Some cameras have programmable time exposures. The camera is usually attached to a well-constructed tripod. The shutter can be fired by means of a cable release with a locking set screw, which permits hands-off exposures. This reduces the chances of blurred images due to camera movement and vibrations. A sensitive hand-held exposure meter can be useful because some built-in camera meters do not read available darkness with accuracy.

For maximum steadiness, use a sturdy tripod and do not raise the center column any more than is necessary. A heavy weight can be hung from the center column as ballast. Sandbagging the legs of the tripod also makes it less prone to movement. Close the shutter if the camera is shaken and resume the exposure after the disturbance has passed.

Cardboard Shutter

Hold a piece of black matte cardboard close to the front of the lens. When you are ready to end the exposure, place the cardboard in front of the lens and then close the shutter (using a cable release) to help reduce recording any camera jiggle. This is important when using any type of SLR or DSLR camera body whose mirror flips back down at the end of the exposure. This technique also can be used to permit changes in aperture and focus during the exposure. If the camera should be jarred during any of these procedures, allow it to settle down before removing the cardboard from in front of the lens and continuing the exposure.

© William Larson. Untitled: 8 Mile Pinhole Exposure on Route 476, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2007. 30×40 inches. Inkjet print.

Adjusting the Aperture

Varying the length of exposure time drastically affects the final outcome of the image. Opening the lens to a wide aperture diminishes the depth of field and delivers the shortest exposure time. Closing down the lens to a small aperture increases the depth of field and gives longer exposures. Closing down the lens also allows for changes in focus and aperture. The extended exposure time permits you to work with additional sources of light, such as a strobe or flashlight, during the course of a single exposure.

Where to Start

Begin with a negative film of ISO 100. Stop the lens down three f-stops from its maximum aperture. Bracket all the exposures (one f-stop under and up to three f-stops over in full f-stop increments). Keep a written record to compare with the results so more accurate exposures can be obtained with less bracketing in the future. Bracketing can always be useful, as the different lengths of time affect how the scene is recorded. Bracketing also is helpful in learning how to compensate for probable reciprocity failure, which is likely to accompany long exposures. For instance, if the indicated exposure is 1 second, one-half f-stop more time at 10 seconds, and one full f-stop at 100 seconds. This correction can be made by using either the lens aperture or shutter speed control. With color film, reciprocity failure also produces a shift in the color balance. For exact times and filter corrections of specific films, consult the manufacturer's reciprocity failure guide.

© Chris McCaw. Heliograph 093, 2015. 20×24 inches. Gelatin silver paper negative. Yossi Milo Gallery, New York.

Using Neutral Density Filters

When we contemplate long exposures, we tend to think of low-light situations, such as early evening, night, or inclement weather. One way to extend the amount of exposure time in any situation is to use an ND filter. An ND filter blocks equal amounts of all the visible wavelengths of white light. Such filters are available in various strengths, which will reduce the amount of light reaching the film or sensor by one, two, or four f-stops. ND filters may be used in tandem (one attached to the other) to reduce the intensity of the light even further.

© Michael Kenna. Ratcliffe Power Station, Study 68, Nottinghamshire, England, 2003. 8×8 inches. Toned gelatin silver print.

Flash and Flashlight Techniques

A flash can be used to illuminate parts of a scene. Large areas can be “painted” with multiple flash exposures. With the camera on a tripod and the lens open, a person dressed in dark clothes can walk within the scene and fire the flash to illuminate specific items or to light a large space. A flash also can be combined with other techniques. For instance, one can focus on one area of a scene and illuminate it with a flash, then shift the focus to another area in the composition and use the flash to light it. Colored gels can be used to alter the color relationships within a scene.

A flashlight also may be used to illuminate the subject. Start with a subject in a darkened room. Put the camera on a tripod and set the aperture to f-8 or f-11. Use the B or T setting to open the shutter. Begin painting the subject with the flashlight, using a broad, sweeping motion. Avoid pointing the light into the camera's lens. When you are done painting, close the shutter.

As you gain experience, you will be ready to tackle more complicated situations, such as working outside at night. When doing this, wear dark, nonreflective clothes so you may walk around within the scene without being recorded on film. Since it is impossible to know exactly what the final effect will be, make a series of exposures varying the intensity of the light and the type of hand gestures used in applying it. Some gestures may be smooth and continuous; others may be short and choppy. Have fun experimenting; try dancing around, running, hopping, jumping, or waving with the light.

© David Lebe. Angelo on the Roof, 1979. 16×20 inches. Gelatin silver print.

Pictures From a Screen

Making pictures from a monitor or television screen offers a photographer the opportunity to become an active participant instead of being a passive spectator. The camera can be used to stop the action on the screen or extend the sense of time by allowing the images to blend and interact with one another. The literal distortion of photographing directly from the screen is both its strength and Achilles’ heel. To make pictures from a television or monitor screen follow the steps in Box 12.3. Untraditional representations from the screen are possible using the methods listed in Box 12.4.

A Blue-Ray, DVD player gives one the chance to be selective about the images on the screen and also enables you to repeat the image on the screen until it can be photographed in the manner that is desired.

© Diane Bush. Warhead #23, 2005. 17×23 inches. Chromogenic color print. Courtesy George Eastman Museum, Rochester, NY and Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.

When working digitally, experiment with different white balance settings, checking on a color corrected monitor, until the desired results are realized.

If no screen lines are wanted, one can use the HDMI output from a digital cable box with a tuner to grab an image on to a computer with a mini recorder capture device, which makes its image based on electronic signals rather than from a screen.

When using film, be mindful that different films deliver a variety in color renditions due to the film's spectral sensitivity and dye-image formation system. If color film is used to photograph a black-and-white monitor, the resulting image may have a blue cast. With daylight balanced color film, the resulting image will probably have a blue-green cast. This may be partially corrected by using a No. CC3OR, No. CC4OR, or No. 85B filter at the time of initial exposure with appropriate exposure compensation.

Painting the Print with Light

One can re-expose the light-sensitive printing material with a controlled source of light after the initial print is exposed or while it is developing. This can be achieved with a small penlight. Wrap a piece of opaque paper around the penlight so it extends a few inches beyond the body of the light source. Secure it to the penlight body with tape. This paper blinder will act as an aperture to control the amount of light. Pinch the open end of the paper together to control the intensity and shape of the light source. Fiber optics also can be attached to the end of the penlight for tighter control over the light.

Working Procedure

Correctly expose the image on black-and-white paper. Place a red filter beneath the enlarging lens. Since black-and-white paper is not sensitive to red light, the red filter enables you to turn on the enlarger and see the projected image without affecting the paper. Open the lens to its maximum aperture. Turn on the enlarger and project through the red filter. This allows you to see where to draw with the penlight. Begin drawing with the light. You can cover specific areas of the print with opaque materials to prevent re-exposure.

© Robert Hirsch. Nuclear War?!... There Goes My Career! 1983. 16×20 inches. Toned gelatin silver print.

It is also possible to draw with the light as the image begins to appear in the developer. This can produce a grayer line quality or a partial Sabattier effect.

Projection

A digital projector or a slide projector with a zoom lens also can be used to paint a scene with light (by placing a colored gel or gels over the lens) or to project an image, images, or moving images onto a scene to create a visual layering effect. Try using old images, making new images of the same subject, combining black-and-white and color images, appropriating images or text from other sources, projecting more than one image, projecting different images onto different parts of the composition, or varying the size of the projection. Amend your color balance according to the desired effect.

Moving the Fine Focus

By moving the fine-focus control on the enlarger during the exposure, a maker can cause the projected image to expand and/or contract. Start by giving the print two-thirds of its correct exposure. Then begin to move the fine-focus control and give the print the remaining one-third of its time. For example, if the normal exposure time is 24 seconds, give the print its first exposure of 16 seconds and the remaining 8 seconds while moving the fine focus. It may be necessary to stop down the lens and increase the overall exposure so there is more time available to manipulate the fine-focus control. The final outcome is determined by the following:

■The ratio of the normal exposure to the moving exposure.

■The speed at which the Fine focus is moved.

■How long the moving exposure is left at any one point.

■Whether the Fine focus is used to expand or contract the image.

■When the moving exposure is made. Different effects will be produced depending on whether the Fine focus is moved before, in the middle of, or at the end of the normal exposure.

© Michael Bosworth. Analog Projector 5, 2014. Variable Dimensions. Mixed Media.

© Robert Hirsch. Running on the Craters of the Moon, 1985. 16×20 inches. Toned gelatin silver print. Courtesy Dr. Philip Perryman Collection.

In-Camera Multiple Exposures

To make more than a single exposure in the camera on one single frame, begin with a controlled situation having a dark background. One must use a camera that has a double-exposure capability (see the camera's manual for specific instructions on how to carry out this procedure). Use one source of illumination to light the subject. Put the camera on a tripod, focus, and then figure the exposure for each frame based on the total number of exposures planned for that frame. Generally, the individual exposures are determined by dividing the overall exposure time by the total number of exposures. For instance, if the overall exposure for a scene is f-8 at 1/60 second, the time for two exposures on one frame would be f-8 at 1/125 second each. This tends to work well if the illuminated subject(s) overlap. If there is no overlap and a dark background is used, the correct exposure would be f-8 at 1/60 second for each exposure. Be prepared to do some testing. Using the monitor on a digital camera will allow for quick review and adjustments.

Nir Evron. Dreyfus/Melies (La dicstée du borderau Star Film Company 206,1899), 2014. 7×9 1/2 inches. Inkjet print.

Using a Masking Filter

A masking filter, which exposes only half the frame at a time, can be used to make a single image from two separate halves. One can buy this filter or make it by cutting a semicircular piece of opaque material to fit into a series-type filter holder designed for the size of the lens being used. An intriguing variation is to make a mask that has a number of doors, each of which can be opened for individual exposure. These doors may be of different shapes and sizes. The composition can be rearranged and relit for each exposure. The following is a basic guide for using a masking filter with an SLR camera.

© Adrianne Little. End of Road #65, 2007-08. 24×24 inches. Lightjet print.

Box 12.5 Using a Masking Filter

1. Place the masking Filter on the camera lens. Compose and normally expose half the frame.

2. Wind the shutter without advancing the Film.

3. Rotate the masking Filter so the First half of the image that was exposed is not masked off.

4. With the second half of the frame now in view, compose and expose the second half normally.

5. After this second exposure, advance the Film to the next frame.

Generally, allow each image to cross the centerline of the frame (mask) and come about one-third of the way into the blocked area. This can help make the blend line less noticeable. The major problem with this technique is that it is often easy to see the line where the two images meet. Extra care in dodging and burning when making the print can make this less noticeable.

© Michael Northrup. Mad Donna, 1995. 24×20 inches. Chromogenic color print. Courtesy Strobophoto Studio, Baltimore, MD.

Darkroom Multiple Exposure

There are numerous methods for accomplishing multiple exposure in the darkroom. The simplest method of altering the perception of time and space within a composition involves exposing a single negative more than once on a piece of light-sensitive material. Box 12.6 lists some of the many variations on this procedure.

Combination Printing

Combination printing is when two or more negatives are printed on a single piece of light-sensitive material to make the final image. Combination printing is not a contemporary innovation, but was originally devised for use with the collodion wet-plate process in the mid-1850s to overcome the slowness of the film's emulsion and its inability to record certain parts of the spectrum. The technique was popularized in England by Oscar Gustave Rejlander and Henry Peach Robinson, and peaked by the 1880s. As technical improvements such as panchromatic emulsions and flexible roll film became available, combination printing was no longer necessary, and its practice rapidly declined. The process experienced a major rebirth in the 1960s with the images and teaching of Jerry Uelsmann. He used this precomputer technique in a surrealistic manner to juxtapose objects for which there was no correlation in the ordinary world.

Before the widespread use of digital imagemaking, combination printing was a way to make a composite of images by photographic means. Although the computer's ability to amalgamate images is unparalleled, not all imagemakers have abandoned combination printing. In an online exhibition of his work, Uelsmann addressed why he still creates certain images in the darkroom. “While I am interested in these computer options, I still have a basic love of the darkroom and the alchemy it embraces. In terms of the creative process, I find that the overwhelming number of options offered by the computer creates a decision-making quagmire.”

Combination printing can be carried out by switching negatives in a single enlarger or by moving the light-sensitive material from one enlarger and easel to another, each having been set up to project a different image. If more than one enlarger is available, most people find the second method easier to use.

© Tricia Zigmund. Self-Portrait with Ectoplasm, 2006. 26×39 inches. Chromogenic color print. Courtesy Kolok Gallery, North Adams, MA.

Box 12.6 Darkroom Multiple Exposure Practices

1. Enlarge or reduce the image with each new exposure.

2. Allow the exposures to overlap and intermingle.

3. Use different exposure times to create variety in image density.

4. Move the Fine-focus control during some of the exposures.

5. Print only selected portions of the negative.

6. Combine this with other techniques such as cliché-verre or photograms.

7. Sandwich the negative with other negatives or with transparent materials.

8. Combine the negative with a positive (transparency) image.

9. Print from more than one negative.

10. Make masks that can be attached to the easel so that multiple negatives can be exposed with a single enlarger.

Opaque Printing Masks

Printing masks can be used to block exposure to different areas of the light-sensitive material. The masks must be carefully cut to avoid making an outline around each area where the exposure was blocked.

A multiple opaque mask can be used with a single negative. In this case, a mask is made the same size as the final print. The mask is cut into various shapes corresponding to those in the image. One section of the mask is removed, and an exposure is made. This section is then replaced, and another is removed and exposed. The process is continued until all the sections have received exposure. The amount of exposure can be varied from section to section to create different density effects.

Box 12.7 Combination Printing Guidelines

1. Look through your contact sheets and Find two images to combine. Select images that have a clear horizontal or vertical dividing line, as this will simplify the blending process.

2. Place each image in a different enlarger.

3. Size and focus the images. Allow them to slightly overlap.

4. Put a piece of plain white paper in the First easel. Use a marker to indicate the placement of the major objects and where the blending line will be.

5. Move this paper to the second easel and line up the second image and blending line with the indicated marks.

6. Make a test strip to determine the correct exposure for each enlarger.

7. Place the light-sensitive material in the First enlarger and make the exposure, using an opaque board to block the exposure around the blending line. Keep the board moving and allow some of the exposure to cross the blending line so there is no visible joining line.

8. Transfer the light-sensitive material to the second easel. Expose the second negative, using the opaque board in the same manner as in Step 7 to block the First exposure.

9. Expect to carry out this procedure a number of times until you master moving the board to get a seamless blend. Patience and craftsmanship are necessary to successfully create this illusion.

©Jerry Uelsmann. Man on Desk, from the book Process and Perception, 1976. 20×16 inches. Gelatin silver print.

Numbering the sections can help you keep track of what you have done.

Sequences

Another aspect of fabrication involves departing from the traditional of only using a single image to convey a message. Cinematic seeing presents a series of images in which each frame modifies the sense of photographic time and space of the frame before and after it. This interaction between frames delivers more data, thus enabling the audience to witness a different point of view or a new episode that can enhance their understanding of the subject. This technique can be accomplished directly in the camera using previsualization methods or created from prints using postdarkroom procedures. Box 12.9 lists methods to explore cinematic imagemaking.

© Thomas Kellner. Washington, Capitol 1, 2004. 13¾×10½ inches. Chromogenic color print. Courtesy Schneider Gallery, Chicago, IL.

© Stu Levy. Sleeping Beauty (Stanley Burns, M.D.), 2002. 24×40 inches. Inkjet print. Courtesy Verve Gallery, Santa Fe, NM.

The Collage

A photographic collage is produced when cut and torn pieces from one or more photographs are combined on a common support material. Images may be woven together as well. A photographic collage may also include printed images from magazines, newspapers or the Internet; a combination of colored paper, wallpaper, or fabric; natural materials such as sand, grass, flowers, and leaves; and 3-D objects. No attempt is made to deny that this complete image is an assemblage created from a variety of source materials. It is not rephotographed and is itself presented as the final product.

The Montage

A montage follows the same basic rules as those used in making a collage. However, the major difference is that the finished collection of materials is rephotographed. The making of this new photographic image allows the end product to be transformed back into a photographic print, from which additional copies may be produced. Sometimes the imagemaker attempts to hide the source of the various images and materials in an effort to present a new, seamless photographic, as opposed to digital, rendition that will make people ask, “How can that be?” Great fun, innovation, and provocation are possible by juxtaposing people, places, and things that would otherwise not be seen keeping company together.

Making a Collage or Montage

To assemble a collage or montage one should consider the materials listed in Box 12.10.

You will need the following materials to assemble a collage or montage.

© Dinh Lê. Untitled, 2007. 53 × 76½ inches. Woven chromogenic prints and linen tape. Courtesy PPOW Gallery, New York and Shoshana Wayne Gallery, Santa Monica, CA.

Box 12.11 contains a basic working guide for constructing a collage or montage.

Resource Guide

Photo Based Installations and Performance Art

Photo based installations can comprise arrangements of images, objects, sound, and text that are designed to function as a single work. Installations provide viewers with the experience of being in and surrounded by the work, and often feature interactive digital components, including video and sound, to produce a more intense sensory realization. Precedents for installations can be found in the Pop Art era of the late 1950s and 1960s, such as Allan Kaprow's 18 Happenings in 6 Parts, 1959 or Red Groom's “sculpto-pictoramas” such as The City of Chicago, 1967. Most installations are not salable and generally are exhibited and dismantled, leaving only photographic documentation of their existence.

©Joe Mills. Untitled #291 (The Smoker), 2004/2007. 25×20×1 inches. Photomontage. Courtesy Hemphill Fine Arts, Washington, DC.

Courtesy Greg Erf.

The conceptual artist Bruce Nauman utilized the supposed objectivity of the photograph to give a documentary look to his contrived situations, known as performance art. This term has been retroactively applied to early live-art forms, such as body art and happenings. The progressive disintegration of conventional artist materials and presentation forms led artists to engage with the actual body as a forum for cultural critiques. Performance art is an open-ended classification for art activities that include elements of dance, music, poetry, theater, and video, presented before a live audience and usually “saved” by photographic methods and shown to larger audiences. One of its purposes is to provide a more interactive experience between artists and audiences.

Robert Smithson's constructed Earth Work projects, like Spiral Jetty (1970), a 1500 foot long spiral of earth and rock that jutted out into Great Salt Lake, and Christo's temporary projects, such as wrapping a building, or his Running Fence (1976), a 24½ mile fence of fabric, rely on photography to reach larger audiences. Initially, many conceptual artists resisted being documented, claiming that photographs would convert their art into marketable objects, violating their basic concept that such work was supposed to be experienced in person. But soon, Smithson was exhibiting his photographs and Christo was selling his. Artists like Smithson, who created transitory situations that he extracted from nature or left for nature to decompose, fixed his work with photography, stating: “Photography makes nature obsolete”⁴ Such strategies helped to dissolve the boundaries that separated photography from other media.

Sodium Carbonate Reticulation

Sodium carbonate can be used to produce simple random reticulation. No two films seem to react to it in the same way. Even negatives on the same strip of film can respond differently, making this process highly unpredictable. Kodak's TRI-X is one film that works well with this technique. Using a medium- or large-format negative allows you to readily observe the process.

As mentioned earlier, previously processed film may be used, which can be useful for testing. However, the older the film is, the harder its emulsion surface tends to be, thus increasing the time it takes for reticulation to take place and also limiting its effects. Best results are achieved with freshly processed film (see Box 12.12).

Water Reticulation

Some films that have not been fixed with an acid hardener can be reticulated in water. Put the freshly processed film, fixed only with a nonhardening fixer, in plain water at 150°F (65°C) and allow it to sit until the water cools down to normal room temperature. This method will produce a much finer, softer pattern than that induced with sodium carbonate.

Masking

Specific areas of a negative can be masked with Fotospeed MK50 Fotomask or rubber cement to prevent reticulation (see Chapter 9, “Selective Toning: Using Frisket”). Use a fine brush to apply the mask directly on the emulsion (dull) side of the film and let it dry. Then immerse the film in the reticulating solution.

There may be some slight reticulation around the edges of the mask, depending on the length of time the film is in the solution. After the film has been washed and dried, the mask can be removed with Fotomask Cleaner, masking tape or with your finger. Film may be masked, partially reticulated, washed and dried, remasked, and further reticulated to create a variety of patterns within a single image.

Materials for Adding Color

A wide array of materials and processes can be used to apply color to a photograph. Some widely used coloring materials include acrylic paint, colored pencils, dyes (both fabric and food), enamel paint, marking pens, Marshall's Photo-Oil Colors, oil paint, photographic retouching colors, photographic toners (see Chapter 9), and watercolors.

Combining Coloring Agents

Coloring agents can be combined, as long as you keep in mind the old adage about oil and water not mixing.

Box 12.12 Chemical Reticulation Guidelines

1. Start with a completely processed and dried negative.

2. Prepare the reticulation solution by combining 30 g of sodium carbonate with 500 ml of water at 140–150°F (60–65°C). This solution has a useful temperature range of 105–160°F (40–71°C). As the temperature goes down, the action of the solution becomes slower. If the temperature gets too high, it will ruin the Film's plastic base. You can maintain the temperature with the use of a hot plate.

3. Place the Film directly in the hot solution, which is held in a clear glass jar or a small tray. For easy handling, attach a paper clip through a sprocket hole to individual frames of 35 mm film before placing them in a clean baby food jar Filled with solution. Take care not to let the Film come in contact with the walls of the jar or uneven reticulation will result. Some workers prefer the tray process. For tray processing tape the Film, emulsion side up, to a slightly larger piece of thin Plexiglas or glass and place in a tray. This technique makes observation and manipulation easier, and it provides a solid horizontal support. The tray method also permits extending the time in the solution, which increases the effect and allows other visual distortion such as veiling effects to take place. Veiling is caused by the physical breakdown of the emulsion as it begins to dissolve and fold up. Be careful not to leave the Film in the solution too long, or the emulsion will completely slide off its base. One can push the loose emulsion around with a brush or a very weak stream of water to create other effects.

4. When the Film is placed in the solution, the protective gelatin layer will dissolve and rise to the surface. Allow the Film to remain in the solution for 5-20 minutes, with occasional agitation. Reticulation may begin within 45 seconds. The First stages will produce a Fine-textured pattern. As time passes, the pattern should become larger and more exaggerated. The process may not take as long with 35 mm Film as with a 6×7 cm format. This is because the pattern will be more evident when the 35 mm Film is enlarged to the same size as the 6×7 cm Film. If the process is allowed to go too far, the pattern will become more visually important than the original subject.

5. When the desired result is obtained, remove the Film from the solution. A pair of tweezers can be helpful when dealing with unattached pieces of Film. Wash it in cool running water for 10 minutes, treat with Photo-Flo, and then hang it up to dry.

©Jill Enfield. Fire Island Trees, 1985/1990. 11×14 inches. Hand-colored gelatin silver print.

Box 12.13 Hand-Coloring Materials

■Lacquer based paint is usually sprayed from a can or airbrush.

■Oil based materials are among the most common and easy-to-use coloring agents. Quality artist oil paints can be applied to almost any photographic surface. Before painting, a fine coat of turpentine is generally applied to the print surface with a cotton ball. Marshall Photo-Oils and Pencils are available in complete kits with directions for their application. Oil based materials produce soft, subtle colors. Blending large areas of color is easy with oils. Since oils are slow drying, you can fix mistakes with cotton and turpentine.

■Water based materials, such as acrylic paint, certain concentrated dye toners such as Edwal photographic retouching colors, and watercolors are considered additive coloring agents. They can be applied straight or mixed to form new colors on a palette. Overall coloring agents are considered to be toners and are covered in Chapter 9. Nonacrylic water based coloring agents like watercolors affect the print surface in the same manner as conventional spotting. The color penetrates the surface and becomes a permanent part of the image. Mistakes cannot be erased as with oils but must be painted over. Consequently, more care, skill, and forethought are required.

■Intense and subtle color effects can be created with water based materials, depending on how much water is used to dilute the coloring agent. Since these materials do not sit on the print surface, as do oil based materials, colors tend to appear brighter, clearer, and more intense. When covering large areas, water based materials must be applied rapidly and smoothly if you do not want brush strokes to be evident in the final image. Dipping a brush in diluted Photo-Flo or lightly wetting the areas to be colored with a clean cotton ball and fresh water can reduce the likelihood of streaking.

■ Acrylics are somewhat different from other water based materials. Acrylics reside on the surface of the print and so tend to appear brighter and more opaque. If these qualities are not problematic, it can be easier to work with acrylics than with watercolors because they are slower to dry. Thus, they can be removed while still wet using cotton and water.

Box 12.14 Factors Affecting the Permanence of Additive Coloring Agents

■Keeping properties of the specific coloring agents.

■Combinations of coloring agents.

■Type and condition of the surface being painted.

■Levels of exposure to UV light.

■Proper display and storage conditions, including moderate temperatures and medium to low relative humidity.

Remember that lacquer and oil do not adhere well to water based materials and that water based agents do not adhere well to lacquer and oil based materials. Box 12.14 lists the factors affecting the permanence of additive coloring agents.

Box 12.15 provides starting points for applying additive colors to a photographic print. As experience is gained, begin to diverge from the given modes of application. Try hand-coloring on fabric and nonsilver emulsions or combining the procedure with toning and masking. Hand-coloring is a highly individualistic process, so be adventurous and experiment. Do not be afraid to make mistakes. The ability to make meaningful photographs often comes through an intellectual and/or spiritual instinct that mastery of technique and hours of practice have liberated.

Box 12.15 Hand-Coloring Guidelines: Applying Additive Colors to a Photographic Print

1.Begin with a dry, processed, well-washed print. Most workers prefer a matte surface, but a glossy surface also can be used.

2.Gather together all the needed materials, including the coloring agents and applicators. Colors can be applied with various sizes of good-quality brushes, 0-Tips, cotton balls, lintless cloth, or small sponges. A mixing palette, water or another solvent, and white paper on which you can test mixed colors are required. In addition, your work area should have an adjustable, high-quality, daylight work light.

3.Read all the manufacturer's instructions and follow all safety procedures as outlined in Chapter 5 and Addendum 1.

4.Practice your technique with throwaway prints.

5.The Final results depend on a combination of application, print surface, type of coloring agent, temperature, and humidity.

6.Images made with water-soluble materials, including inkjet prints, can be made water-resistant by spraying them with a Fixing agent, such as Marshall's Image Guard, which also enhances UV light resistance and helps prevent fading.

© Ted Orland. Meteor! 1998. 13×20 inches. Hand-colored gelatin silver print. Courtesy Ansel Adams Gallery, Yosemite, CA.

Canned Spray Paint

Experimenting with colored canned spray paints offers a hands-on way to get an overall sense of what one can do with an airbrush. However, canned spray paint provides a much wider field of spray and is not suggested for precise work, as it is more difficult to control than an airbrush. Canned spray paint and an airbrush can be combined. Follow all the same general airbrush working and safety procedures.

© Robert Hirsch. Anywhere I Hang Myself Is Home, 1992. 16×20 inches. Toned gelatin silver print with mixed media.

Transfer Materials

Materials needed for transfers vary, but those listed in Box 12.16 can be useful for most applications.

Newspaper Transfers: Petroleum Ink Base

Newspapers transfer unpredictably, which is their charm if one wants a distorted image. If you want something more predictable, copy (Xerox) or scan and laser-print the newspaper image (see next section). This also permits the image to be reversed so text will read correctly.

© Shelby Graham. Noh Mask: Rooted, 2006. 12×12×3 inches. Polaroid transfer with mixed media.

Lay receiving material face up on a hard, smooth surface. Trim (if desired) and position the image to be transferred face down. Tape in place if desired, or simply hold in place while working. Lightly saturate a cotton ball with solvent, then blot the cotton ball on paper towels until damp (if it is wet it will cause the ink to run). With hand pressure, apply the damp cotton ball to the back of the newspaper in circular motions until the paper becomes transparent. You can check the progress of your transfer by lifting a corner and peeking. Replenish solvent as needed. If too much of the newsprint comes off on the cotton ball, try using a thin slip sheet (blank piece of paper) between the cotton ball and the newspaper.

Black-And-White Copier, Laser- Printed, and Inkjet Transfers

A black-and-white image (made with a digital laser-printer or dry-toner copier) can be transferred onto another surface using a strong solvent. The method is identical to the newspaper transfer, previously mentioned, except that you will not need a slip sheet. A citrus-oil solvent may work on freshly printed images.

The advantage of the digital laser-print is that the image can be “flipped” prior to output and transfer, resulting in correct left-to-right orientation.

Inkjet printers can be used to make transferable images by using a waxy paper, such as computer label sheets or a release paper that is used as a protective overlay in dry-mount operations by using the procedure outlined in Box 12.17 that only requires plain water.

Color Copier or Laser-Printed Transfers

Color copiers used to have inks that readily transferred with solvents. This is now currently a rarity, but you may still find an old machine that will allow you to do this. One can experiment as the industry is always changing. Failing direct transfers, decal papers or Lazertran paper is an alternative.

Release Papers

Release paper, such as Acrylic Image Transfer Paper, is used for the so-called “paperless” transfer of photocopied images, as this paper washes away with water much more easily and completely than standard copy paper. Designed to be used with laser printers and toner based copiers, it can withstand the high fuser temperature of newer photocopiers. Note that the face of the image to be transferred must be coated with gloss acrylic medium.

Acrylic Image Transfer Paper for inkjet printers is specially designed to make “paperless” color acrylic image transfers with your inkjet printer. However, you will need an inkjet printer with waterproof ink in order to effectively use this product.

Box 12.17 Inkjet Transfer Process

1. Put the transfer paper, shiny side up, into the printer. Be sure to remove any labels that might be on the paper.

2. Adjust the image settings to print about 20 per cent darker and 5 per cent higher in contrast than normal.

3. Select the highest quality printing mode and print the image. The image will look very dull.

4. Briefly soak a piece of blank receiving hot-press printmaking or watercolor paper in a tray of water, then remove, and blot excess moisture with a paper towel or cloth. If the paper is too wet, a dot pattern will result. Cold-pressed papers will deliver a softer effect.

5. Place the inkjet print face down onto the damp receiving paper. Hold Firmly in place and gently rub the back of the transfer paper and then carefully lift it off.

6. A soft or foam brush may be used to blend and manipulate the inks.

7. Watercolor paints or pencils can be applied on either a wet or dry print. Pastel chalks may be used on a dry print.

8. Dry the print with a hair dryer or air dry, face up on a plastic screen.

Also, color copies are subject to fading while black copies made with toner containing carbon are much more stable.

For process details, see Talbot, Jonathan. Collage: A New Approach, 5th Edition, available at: www.talbot1.com.

Water or Vegetable Based Color Print Transfers

Common small- and large-format digital printers use inks or dyes that can be transferred using plain water, water based transparent silkscreen gels, or even acrylic gels. The most archival results begin with pigment based prints. Patience and experimentation will be required. Density of ink, variations between printer hardware, inkjet paper, and receiving paper will result in dramatically differing results.

Many people have success using a printing press to transfer the image because it can quickly apply a large amount of even and intense pressure. The procedure relies on devising a way to evenly dampen the inkjet print and/or receiving paper. Generally, printing paper (made for hand lithography or intaglio) is soaked for 20-30 minutes, then blotted between two large clean towels (and a rolling pin) until damp, not soaking wet. It is then quickly placed on the printing press, the color inkjet print is laid face-down on the damp paper, covered with a clean thin sheet of flexible plastic (such as Lexan or polycarbonate), and quickly run through the press. The transfer is then checked; if the image needs more dampening to release, this can be applied by using a spray bottle, a dampened sponge, or damp blotting paper. The variables are many and experimentation is necessary.

Decal Papers

Most copiers and digital printers have manufacturer-recommended clear “decal” or transfer papers for use with their machines — be sure the decal paper is compatible or it could ruin the machine. These are often “ironed” on with heat and therefore application is limited. The results can be quite detailed; however, the clear plastic of the decal remains on the surface, even in areas where there is no image.

Lazertran Transfer Products

Lazertran Ltd makes transfer papers for color copiers and laser printers. After outputting the digital file or color copy onto Lazertran paper, the image is trimmed and soaked briefly in water. This releases the image from its backing paper, and it can be applied onto paper, canvas, ceramics, tiles, glass, metal, plaster, plastic, or wood. Unlike decals that are ironed on, Lazertran's makers of contact paper often used inside kitchen cabinets claim that it can be fused to bond permanently with a number of surfaces. They also make an iron-on transfer for silk and other sheer fabrics as well as one that allows you to cover curved surfaces and corners. For product details, see: www.lazertran.com.

© Adele Henderson. #53, from the series Normal Male/Normal Female, 1998. 7½×9½ inches. Print on paper, Plexiglas, wax, white shellac, wood frame, and one or more of the following: engraved and inked lines, litho ink transfers, hand painting in oil, asphaltum, or Lazertran transfer.