A Cross-National Perspective on Consumer-Generated Content
According to Brandtzæg (2010), culture influences lifestyle, and lifestyle influences the way individuals communicate and interact with new media technologies. Pookulangara and Koesler (2011) added that the social aspect of shopping “has ingrained in consumer culture for a long time” (p. 340). Culture has been effective in advertising, marketing strategies, and buying habits (Grier and Brumbaugh 1999). In this chapter, we will be discussing how culture affects the use and contribution of CGC.
There has been a rise in consumer-generated content (CGC) in recent years. However, very few studies investigate the attributes of CGC from a cross-national perspective. As Gretzel, Kang, and Lee (2008) indicate, regardless of whether there is a need to integrate CGC-related features on a website or to advertise on a consumer-generated third-party website, marketing practitioners need to first know the CGC “penetration and specific use behaviors associated with consumer-generated content in that specific market” (p. 101). Further, by gaining such an understanding, marketing practitioners will have a better idea of the technology diffusion of innovation in the market. It is also important to determine if the differences in adoption and use of CGC differs across markets. Kraemer, Gibbs, and Dedrick (2005) claim that when innovation is perceived differently and the acceptance of technology varies, there will be greater variation in innovation outcomes in different countries. Thus, it also means that consumers’ adoption and use of CGC will differ across different nations.
As the consumer marketplace gradually places more reliance on the medium of digital communication, it is not surprising that a consumer develops the expectation that the presence of social media will have a great influence on the extent and type of use of an innovation, which has played the role of a communication medium. It has been argued that (Gretzel, Kang, and Lee 2008) CGC, especially in the form of media, requires certain technologies, technology ownership, Internet penetration, and broadband penetration. With an increasing number of consumers using the mobile platform for blogs and content creation, the goal of achieving convenience is even more demanding now.
According to Gretzel, Kang, and Lee (2008), in order to gain insights regarding the differences and similarities of CGC adoption and use, companies need to have an understanding of country-specific use behaviors, which are assumed to be driven and explained by cultural dimensions. In a collectivistic culture, group values and opinions of others are often deemed important. Asian cultures have been found to rely on more personal referral sources when purchasing products and services (Money, Gilly, and Graham 1998; Nielsen 2013). The difference between Asian websites and those in the West is that the former stresses on consumer–consumer interactivity, whereas the latter, which is highly individualistic, stresses on the marketer–consumer interactivity (Cho and Cheon 2005). Based on such an observation, CGC-related websites seem to foster interpersonal exchanges within social networks. Further, such CGC when embedded in websites is assumed to support the creation of communities, which are more likely to be used in the collectivistic cultures if they support social interactions. On the contrary, a highly individualistic culture such as the United States focuses on self-portrayal and self-presentation (Gretzel, Kang, and Lee 2008). CGC, which can be used to self-promote oneself, therefore suits the needs of an individualistic culture.
According to Sigala and Sakellaridis (2004), high power distance and masculine culture have a high preference for interactive websites. This suggests that Japanese and Chinese consumers are likely to have high levels of desire to interact with a website—coincidently a feature of CGC. On the other hand, Americans are likely to express their thoughts and place more emphasis on hedonic aspects of consumption (Malhotra and McCort 2001). This suggests that American consumers seek CGC websites to express themselves, and engage with content creation and content viewing for the sake of enjoyment (Gretzel, Kang, and Lee 2008).
Another cultural dimension, which discusses uncertainty avoidance, has been found to impact consumers’ preferences for elaborative and substantial information on websites (Vishwanath 2004). Germans are considered on the high end of the spectrum for uncertainty avoidance. This means that Germans use CGC because of its high credibility and experiential bias (Gretzel, Kang, and Lee 2008) to complement information provided by marketer-generated websites. On the contrary, owing to their privacy concerns, this high uncertainty avoidance seems to be a barrier for Germans with regard to engagement with and active creation of CGC. In other parts of Europe such as in UK, people are known to enjoy conversations offline and thus are assumed to enjoy online discussions as well (Gannon-Leary and Fontainha 2007). According to Würtz (2005), China, with its high-context culture, seem to have a preference for visual information on websites. Thus, an image-based CGC can be assumed to be more popular with the Chinese than pure text-based CGC. The above discussion suggests that social networking sites (SNSs) will have a different role in each country as user experiences are dependent on the cultural dimensions of the country in which they are situated. Thus, it is important to understand the cultural dimensions of each respective country before deciding to use CGC as a part of the company’s marketing strategy.
To further this discussion, we will examine three different cultural perspectives with examples of actual utilization of CGC. As a society is driven by cultural norms, individuals are pressured to exhibit certain behavior that might not necessarily be in their best interest. Three countries, United States, Japan, and Singapore, were chosen on the basis of their cultural orientation and their differences in attitude and acceptance of CGC.
Many online media consumers are likely to assume that all social media platforms are identical. This also means that social media companies adopt a standardized approach, also known as the etic perspective, when introducing social media to other countries outside of the United States. So, do any of the social media companies adopt a localized strategy (the emic perspective), for their social media platforms? In the following sections, we will explore the role of CGC in each of these countries.
United States of America
The United States is a country that values individualism, indulgence, and masculinity. Hofstede, a culture guru, explored the U.S. culture through the lens of his six dimensions and determined the driving forces behind American culture. It is important to note that these dimensions serve as a mental shortcut to obtain an overview of the country and do not generalize all Americans; everyone is unique. However, the presence of social norms generally ensure that most people to stay within the norm or better known as the so-called approval radius.
U.S. scores high on the individualism dimension: People are generally concerned about their self-image and define themselves as “I” rather than “we.” This dimension also emphasizes that it is a norm for people to focus on themselves and their direct family. On the other end of the spectrum, collectivist societies encourage interdependence within a society. People on this end of the spectrum belong to the “in-groups” and maintain high loyalty to each other.
U.S. consumers are fairly active in online activities. Majority of the applications (also known as apps) on mobile devices have been created and developed by American entrepreneurs, including Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, among others. If we look at online reviews as an example, there are more reviews on Amazon.com and eBay.com than other review sites.
Pew Research determined that as of January 2014, 74 percent of Internet users in the United States were engaged in SNSs. Among the online adult users of this population, it was found that Facebook had the most foot traffic (71 percent); LinkedIn and Pinterest were at a tie (28 percent); followed by Instagram (26 percent); and then Twitter (23 percent). All these social networking platforms are enjoying an increase in user engagement compared to the 2012 usage records (www.pewinternet.org).
Now, why are Americans so eager to use social media? First, we have to return to Hofstede’s dimensions of American society. Americans are known to be individualistic; therefore they are more concerned about themselves as well as their direct family members. Smith (2011) claimed that Americans use the Internet to stay connected with their family members and friends. What other better way is there to connect with the people you care? The answer: social media. Of course, apart from staying in touch with current friends and family members, people are also eager to find their long-lost friends. Social media users who are primarily interested in reconnecting mostly belong to the 50 and under age group.
Is social media used just to reconnect with friends and stay in touch with current friends and family? No, there is more. A smaller percentage (14 percent) of the online adult users caught the social media bug because they want to connect with people who have the same hobby or interest (www.pewresearchinternet.org). These people generally fall into the middle-aged and older adult category. Interestingly, Pew Research found that men are more likely than women to connect on social media with regards to topics on hobby. The remaining users claimed that they used social media to make new friends (9 percent). The smallest population of social media users were just interested in reading comments from public figures (e.g., politics) or in finding romantic partners.
Japan
The Japanese, according to Hofstede’s cultural dimension, is a collectivist society. Historically, Japanese feel the need to blend in with others and not stand out. The need for affiliation is one of traits of Japanese culture. However, as society changes and new consumption habits develop, Japanese individuals see the need for uniqueness more than affiliation. However, despite the shift in consumption behavior, Japanese are still not comfortable in expressing their feelings and thoughts in a public hemisphere. Even if they have to contribute their opinions, the content is often softened by the tone coupled with barely any negative words. On CGC review sites such as Rakuten, the population of reviewers is still minimal. However, CGC platforms, like the Japanese social media, are gaining popularity.
So, can SNSs sustain in the Japanese consumer environment? The answer is yes. During the my time living and working in Japan for several years, I observed train commuters engaging in online activities on their cellular devices. Owing to the long train commutes to school or work, many Japanese either choose to sleep or fidget with their mobile devices. Thus, as early adopters of mobile Internet population, most Japanese social networks were developed for mobile devices. Furthermore, as per the code of social etiquette in Japan, talking on cellular phones on public transportation is taboo. Thus, text-based communication is how many Japanese commuters choose to spend their time (rather than napping) while enduring lengthy commutes.
The nature of SNS and the social conformity practiced by Japanese society contradicts each other. Boosting and highlighting your success online is just not the way of life for Japanese. Hence, it has taken some time for social networks to gain popularity.
Japanese consumers have gradually increased their participation and activity in the virtual world. With the introduction of tablets and smartphones, the popularity of social media has increased. Facebook, Mixi (a Japanese social networking), and Twitter are some of the top social media forms. Contributions on Yelp or even reviews on Amazon.com or Rakuten have been increasing, but it appears that negative comments or reviews are not as prevalent as they are on U.S. websites. All these SNSs have gradually gained popularity as more and more Japanese people become aware of social media. I conducted interviews with some of her friends and acquaintances on their use of social media, and found that majority of the younger respondents were “hooked” onto the daily updates on Facebook. The popularity of Mixi has declined since the introduction of Facebook in Japan.
In a research conducted by Moriuchi and Takahashi (2015), they discovered that Japanese consumers are more likely to contribute a review when their trust toward the e-vendor is negative. Moriuchi and Takahashi (2015) explained that this unexpected finding is probably due to the Japanese culture of humility. In Japan, individuals are not comfortable with giving positive feedback. It was mentioned by Kopp (2013) that the Japanese consider giving praise as a form of sarcasm. The term used is homegoroshi, which literally means “to kill with compliment,” and is used to describe this perception. In other words, positive feedback could be perceived to be effusive and negative. In a similar vein, Japanese consumers may not be motivated to compliment an e-vendor because he or she may perceive it as sarcasm instead of positive feedback.
Another popular social media site is Twitter. Twitter launched its Japanese version in 2008 and Japanese users only comprise 9 percent of overall active Twitter users (www.socialmediatoday.com) at that time. The setup of Twitter compliments the culture of Japanese. Twitter allows users to remain anonymous online, and with its high regard for privacy, Japanese users feel less inhibited when they voice their opinions. Twitter is relatively casual and has an unusual freedom for users to vent anonymously about everything under the sun. The Japanese caught the Twitter bug on being influenced by Hollywood celebrities. In 2010, with the World Cup being the main attraction, Japanese users broke the tweeting record: Japanese users posted 3,283 tweets per second (blogs.wsj.com). To put it into perspective, when the Los Angeles Lakers won the NBA Championship, there was a record of 3,085 tweets per second (www.twitter.com).
The Twitter phenomenon is global, but Japan only caught up to it when the Japanese-language version was introduced in 2008, with a mobile version last October. According to Nielsen Online, the number of Internet visitors who engage in microblogging sites rose from an estimated 1.9 to 7.5 million in March since October. With Twitter’s newfound fame in Japan, many people find Mixi (a Facebook equivalent) troublesome. The perceived etiquette was to maintain relationships on the SNS which can be daunting at times. Furthermore, Mixi has the ability to track digital footprints of visiting users to other’s profiles. On account of their conformist culture, the Japanese feel obligated to acknowledge every form of communication, which would result in a never-ending round of virtual gratitude. Twitter, on the other hand, has a friendly image. Japanese users feel that on Twitter, they do not have to be bothered by every single communication posted. Rather, they can pick and choose what they want to pay attention to and what to ignore.
The word “tweeting,” when translated, means mumbling. This definition has naturally created a perception of an informal method of communication. The main difference between Twitter and Mixi is that the former can be considered a mumbling forum, whereas the other is known as a private communication channel. Another reason for using Twitter among the Japanese is the restricted number of characters. As compared to alphabets, the number of characters when typed in Japanese can convey a wholesome message.
Facebook versus Mixi
Even though Facebook may not have had as much buzz in Japan, it did create a new perceived environment for Japanese users. Facebook in Japan is now viewed as a platform where successful people in real life gather. These people were labeled as “ria-ju” (riaru jiujitsu), which means “real fulfillment.” This is a popular word among teenagers in 2011 and has become very famous on Facebook. Facebook has also become a job-hunting platform for recent college graduates.
Mixi is the Japanese version of Facebook and has a longer standing history in SNSs in Japan. However, the introduction of Facebook has caused Mixi’s member registration and activity to decline. Recently, Mixi has been witnessing tremendous growth, which could be due to the success of an in-app game called “Monster Strike.” Other SNSs that have a presence among Japanese users are Mobage, Pinterest, Instagram, and SnapChat.
Singapore
Geographically, Singapore is a part of the South-East Asia region. It belongs to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and is part of the Asia-Pacific Region (APAC). ASEAN is an organization of countries that is geographically located in Southeast Asia, and is established to promote cultural, economic, and political development in the region. This organization was officially formed in August 8, 1967, with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (www.asean.org).
Singapore is a unique country based on its history. Due to the British colonization, Singapore follows the British system for education, governance, and infrastructure. Most importantly, Singapore has adopted English as its official language. However based on the demographics of Singapore, which is similar to the United States in terms of diversity, it is a melting pot and trading hub for the neighboring Asian countries. Singapore citizens, also known as Singaporeans, have thus developed a westernized social identity despite their ethnic Asian background. Singapore is a rather modernized country that amalgamates Asian and Western cultures. Singapore is considered here in this study due to its uniqueness. Singaporeans, just like the Americans, are very proactive in developing new apps and innovations, and have high participation in online activities. I lived in Singapore for more than 10 years. For the purpose of this book, I interviewed my contacts in the country, regarding Singaporean’s adaptation to online activities.
According to hashmeta.com, Singaporeans are one of the most active social media consumers in the world. Based on infographics about social media usage in Singapore, Singaporeans’ use of social media is extensive and can be expected to evolve continuously. The total population of Singapore in 2013 was recorded at 5.4 million, of which 4 million are users of the Internet (aseanup.com). This is an estimated 86 percent of Internet penetration. According to aseanup.com, the e-commerce market in Singapore was estimated at US$3.08 billion and mobile commerce was estimated at US$1.2 billion. It was recorded that Singapore was ranked eighth for Internet penetration worldwide and fourth in Asia. In regards to Singaporeans’ digital activities, majority of online communication comprised e-mail use, reading online news, searching for information, instant messaging, and social networks. Singaporeans are also fairly active with video streaming, and this is evident at the level of college education at the national universities of Singapore. Podcasting and other types of video streaming are often used as a part of the curriculum.
Word-of-mouth via SNSs greatly influence Singaporeans in their purchasing decisions. According to aseanup.com, Singaporeans (42 percent) use SNS when researching products, and 51.2 percent make decisions based on SNS and community forums. With their active participation in online activities, it is not unusual to see the boom in the e-commerce sector in Singapore. With an increase in mobile device sales as well as in mobile device usage, it is not surprising that online shopping skyrocketed (US$3.1 billion), with traveling and resort bookings amounting to US$307 million (28 percent). It was also reported that Singaporeans shop on overseas websites such as Amazon (62.6 percent) primarily because of product availability, greater choice, lower price, better discounts, and most importantly, the Singaporean dollar is strong against other foreign currency.
In Singapore, Facebook is the most popular social media platform (wearesocial.sg). For B2B social marketing, LinkedIn and Facebook were ranked the most preferred social media platforms to use. Twitter is the second most popular SNS in Singapore capturing 54 percent of the social media users. Google+ (45 percent) was third in popularity, followed by LinkedIn (36 percent), and lastly Instagram (25 percent). According to the Google trend, Instagram has overtaken Twitter as the second most popular SNS (54 percent) in Singapore. Interestingly, similar to the Americans, 46.2 percent of Singaporeans are active on social media sites, often as the go-to source for product reviews, user experiences, and comments (www.hashmeta.com).
Social media has not only been used as a resource for consumers’ purchasing decision-making for Singaporeans; it has also expanded its circle of usage by sharing consumers’ social behavior in public. According to CityLab (www.citylab.com), Singaporeans are hooked on the Internet for spreading awareness toward shameful behavior. I learned about “stomping” through my brother who lives in Singapore. I conducted more secondary research on this topic since there is more to learn about this phenomenon. An online portal known as Straits Times Online Mobile Print (STOMP), owned by Singapore’s top newspaper company, The Straits Times, is a social media site that allows consumers to upload photos and videos of “bad” behavior. Singapore has gained the reputation of upholding righteous behavior, best known for its attempt to control behavior by punishing people for vandalism or imposing death penalty for some drug offenses. Interestingly, instead of challenging the government for monitoring the public, Singaporean STOMPers (those who rattle on their fellow consumers) join the government in highlighting bad behaviors. These STOMPers outwardly post pictures with captions to describe bad behaviors in public. Some of the themes that emerged in recent posts on STOMP (www.stomp.com.sg) were substandard hygiene, ill-mannered foreigners, and “bad” behaviors on public transportation (www.citylab.com).
Now, the question is, how influential is this social media site? According to the editors at STOMP, in 2013, this social media site had a total of 1.2 billion page views and 18 million unique visitors. These outstanding results led STOMP to receive the first place for “Best in Online Media” at the 2013 Asian Digital Media Awards. There were several debates on whether STOMPing your fellow peers is a benefit or an additional stress to the community. On one hand, citizens are trying to create a better living environment for everyone and contribute matters that are of concern and importance to them. However, on the other hand, every little matter gets publicized, which may cause inconvenience to their peers. Essentially, the activity of STOMPing is regarded a double-edge sword and Singaporeans sees this as a debatable topic. Apart from STOMP, an online portal known as The Online Citizen, was also developed to encourage Singaporeans to openly criticize state policies.