Index

Page numbers in italics refer to figures

A-B powering, 64–5, 65

‘A’-gauge jack plug, 355

‘A’-weighted self-noise, 61, 62

‘A’-weighting curve, 19, 29

A/D conversion see Analogue-to-digital

3-0 stereo, 469–70

3-1 stereo, 470–2

3-2 stereo, 472–8, 485–6

5.1 channel surround (3-2 stereo), 240–1, 472–8, 490, 496–512

7.1 channel surround, 478–80, 490

10.2 channel surround, 480

100 volt lines, 345–7

600 ohms, 347–50

AAF see Advanced Authoring Format

AB signals, 127

ABR see Auxiliary bass radiator

Absolute phase reversal, 11

Absorption, 18, 20, 22–3

AC see Alternating current

AC-3 coding, 240–1

AC-biased tape recorders, 156

Acoustic lens, 81–2, 82

Acoustics, 37, 533

Active sensing, 396–7

Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding (ATRAC), 241, 272, 489–90

ADAT, 251–2, 314–15, 315

ADR see Automatic dialogue replacement

Advanced Authoring Format (AAF), 271

Aerials, 66, 68–72

AES-3 interface, 307–11

After fade listen (AFL), 116–17

Aftertouch, 388–9, 394, 401–2

AGC see Automatic gain control

AIFF, 265–6, 266

Alesis digital interface, 314–15

Aliasing, 202–6, 204, 205, 207–8, 219

Alignment:

digital tape recording, 252–3

noise reduction, 186, 188–90

stereo misalignment effects, 446

tape recorders, 171–8

Alternating current (AC), 12, 13

Ambisonics, 473, 478, 492–7, 502, 513–18

Amplifiers, 325–33

100 volt lines, 345–7

600 ohms, 347–50

active loudspeakers, 86

attenuators, 328–9, 329

balanced lines, 342

cable resistance, 337–8

classes, 326–7

coupling, 333

crosstalk, 331–2

damping factor, 332–3

DI boxes, 350–2

differential, 344–5

distortion, 326, 330–1, 536

distribution, 358

equal-loudness contours, 30–1

frequency response, 330, 531

heat sink areas, 325

impedance, 332

loudspeaker impedance, 88

loudspeaker power handling, 91

microphone noise, 61–2

microphone sensitivity, 60–1

mixers, 98

noise, 132–3, 332

phase response, 333

power bandwidth, 330

power output, 329–30

reverberation time, 21

sensitivity, 328–9

signal-to-noise ratio, 332, 538

specifications, 328–33

voltage gain, 16

Amplitude, 1

conversion to electrical sound waves, 11

decibels, 14–16

digital signal processing, 230

displaying, 14

dither, 216, 217

Frequency Modulation, 67

harmonics, 6

line spectra, 4, 5

pairwise panning, 517

phase, 8, 9

quantising, 208–9, 212–13

room modes, 22

sampling frequency, 201–2, 203

spatial perception, 33, 34–6

two-channel stereo, 434, 435–8

Analogue information, 194–5

Analogue interfacing, 334–58

Analogue recording, 154–81, 193–4

Analogue-to-digital (A/D) conversion, 142, 142, 199–220

interconnecting devices, 306

mastering, 299

sampling, 201–8

sound quality, 200–1

workstations, 276

Anechoic chambers, 18

Anti-aliasing filters, 206, 206, 207–8, 219

Antinodes, 6, 6

Aperture effect, 222

Apparent (auditory) source width (ASW), 37

Assignable consoles, 120–1

ASW see Apparent source width

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), 323–4

ATA interface, 262

ATM see Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATRAC see Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding

Attenuators, 62, 99, 149, 328–9, 329

Audio frequency range, 3

Audio grouping, 106, 108, 131, 144–5

Audio processing, 276–8, 292–3

Audio spectrum, 3

Auditory masking, 28, 30, 31, 235, 237–40

Aural Exciter, 369–70

Autolocate, 167–8

Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR), 426–8

Automatic gain control (AGC), 71

Automatic repeat function, 167–8

Automation, mixers, 140–9

Auxiliary bass radiator (ABR), 80

Auxiliary sends, 104, 117, 130–1, 133–4

Averaging, 249

Azimuth, 171, 173–5, 176, 180, 186, 253

‘B’-curve, 19

‘B’-gauge jack plug, 355

Balanced lines, 59, 64, 65, 341–3, 347–50

Balancing, electronic, 344–5

Bantam jack, 358

Bargraph meters, 142

Baseband, 203, 204–6, 205, 207

Bass, equal-loudness contours, 30–1

Bass loading, 79–82

Bass reflex systems, 79–80, 80, 87–8, 88

Bass tip-up, 41, 45, 53

Beat frequency, 28

Bell, 113

Bell curve, 125

Bell Labs, 431–6, 461

Bessel Array, 92–3, 93

Bi-phase mark (FM channel code), 245–6, 311, 311, 420, 422

Bias, 160, 163

adjustment, 173–5

amplifiers, 326

cassette duplication, 181

Compact Cassette, 179–80

Bidirectional pattern microphones see Figure-eight microphones

Binary Format for Scenes (BIFS), 240

Binary system, 194, 195–9, 196, 208–9, 420

Binaural recording, 429, 460, 465–7

binaural stereo, 438–42

spatial perception, 38

two-channel stereo, 432, 432–3, 433–4

see also Pseudo-binaural recording

Bit oset, 428

Bit stream conversion, 222

Bits, 195–7, 196

Bluetooth, 322

Boost, 113, 121, 125, 359–61

Bounce, 116, 116

Boundary microphones, 55–6

Breath controller, 403

Broadcast (mixer control), 115, 115

Broadcast WAVE format, 268, 269

Broadcasting:

jackfields, 355

live events, 352

metering, 139

sampling frequency, 208

stereo line input modules, 127

Buffering, MIDI, 401

Burst errors, 245, 247–8, 247, 249

Bus, 115, 116

Bus trim, 106, 112

Butt joins, 280–1, 280

Bytes, 195–7, 196

‘C’-curve, 19

Cables:

100 volt lines, 345–7

600 ohms, 348–50

capacitance, 339–41

digital mixers, 150

inductance, 339

interconnecting digital devices, 306–7

MIDI, 379

resistance, 337–8

star-quad, 343–4, 344

unbalanced lines, 337–9

Calrec 1050C microphone, 64

Calrec Soundfield, 493

Camcorders, 157

Capacitance, 339–41

Capacitor (condenser) microphones, 41, 44, 45–6, 56–7, 56

A-B powering, 64–5

cardioid pattern microphones, 53

figure-eight pattern, 50

mixers, 111

noise, 61–2

phantom power, 62–4

sensitivity, 60

Capacitors, 13

Cardioid microphones, 48–9, 50–3, 51–2, 56–7

coincident pairs, 449–51, 451, 453, 454

near-coincident pairs, 459, 459

rifle microphones, 54–5

stereo microphones, 59

surround sound recording, 504–6, 505, 508–9, 515

Cassette machines:

built-in mics, 46

frequency response, 531, 533

harmonic distortion, 535

multitrack, 180–1

noise, 183, 184–7, 188, 538

signal-to-noise ratio, 538

Cassette tapes, 157–8

bias, 163

Compact Cassette, 178–81

duplication, 181

CD see Compact Disc

CEDAR, 294, 294

Centre-track timecode, 422–3, 424

Channel (mixer control), 113–17

Channel aftertouch, 394

Channel coding, 199, 245–6

Channel grouping, 106, 108–9

Channel masking, 409

Channel messages, 385–6

Channel mode messages, 391–401

Channel pan, 112

Channel paths, 102–3, 104–5, 111, 117

Channels, 120–1, 384–5, 469–70

Chase synchronisers, 419, 424–6, 425, 426

Chorus, 370–1

Cinema see Film

Circle Surround, 483

Clipping, 135, 214, 215

amplifiers, 328

compressor/limiters, 362–3

graphic equalisers, 361

level control in mastering, 298

metering, 137

CMR see Common mode rejection

CMRR see Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

Code index number (CIN), 416, 416

Coding, 199, 236–41, 236

Coherent Acoustics, 241, 489

Coincident-pair microphones, 429, 445–60, 511–12

Comb-filtering effects, 368–9, 462–3

Common mode rejection (CMR), 132, 341, 343, 345

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 132, 341

Compact Cassette, 178–81

Compact Disc (CD), 245–6

CD-Audio, 300

CD-DA, 271–2

CD-R, 258, 272

CD-ROM, 207, 271–2

CD-RW, 258, 272

channel coding, 245

consumer interface, 313

DTS, 489

dynamic range, 213

frequency response, 531

mastering formats, 248–50

optical disks, 258

requantisation, 227

sampling frequency, 206, 207–8

Compact Discs, 271–2

Compansion process, 183, 184–8

Complex waveforms, 4

Compression, 1, 2, 3, 8, 11–12, 12

Compressors, 362–3, 363, 370

Computers:

disk-based systems, 254–64

editing software, 287–90

interfacing with MIDI, 380–3

networks, 308, 316–20

sampling rates, 207

workstations, 276–8

Concealment, 249

Concert halls, 37, 86, 463

Concha resonance, 36

Condenser microphones see Capacitor microphones

Connectors, 96, 97–8, 343, 357, 379

Consumer interface, 311–13

Control change messages, 389–91, 405

Control grouping, 106, 109, 144–5

Control layers, 150–2

Controller messages, 402–4

Controller numbers, 389–91

Correlation meters, 138–9

Coupling, 333

cps see Cycle per second

CRC see Cyclic redundancy check

Critical bandwidth, 28, 30

Critical distance, 21

Crossfading, 229, 279, 282–3

edit points, 280–2

editing software, 289, 289

MIDI note assignment, 398–9, 400

splice editing, 253

Crossover distortion, 326

Crossover networks, 83–4, 85–6

Crosstalk, 134–5, 539–40

Ambisonics, 505

amplifiers, 331–2

binaural stereo, 443–4

digital mixers, 120

digital tape recording, 252–3

loudspeaker stereo over headphones, 442

multitrack recorders, 168

stereo misalignment effects, 446

surround sound, 518–20

timecode, 422–3

Current, 11–13

Cut, 113, 116, 121, 125, 359–61

CV and gate, 373–4

Cycle per second (cps), 1

Cyclic redundancy check (CRC), 248, 253

D/A conversion see Digital-to-analogue

DA-88 format, 251–2

DAB see Digital Audio Broadcasting

Damping factor, 332–3

DASH see Digital Audio Stationary Head

DAT see Digital Audio Tape

Data byte, 384–5

Data recovery, 246

Data reduction, 235–41, 312

Data and sync separation, 246

Data transfer rates, 235–6, 258, 259

dbx, 188

De-emphasis, 183–4, 188

De-essers, 370

Dead fields, 39

Dead spots, 67, 71, 73

Decca Tree, 462–3, 462, 463, 508

Decibels, 14–16, 17–18, 19, 99, 348

Decimation, 219

Dedicated monitor mixers, 127

Degenerate modes, 23

Delta-sigma conversion, 220, 221, 223

Demagnetisation, 172–3

Demultiplexer (Demux), 143

Depth perception, 39

DI (direct injection) boxes, 350–2

Dialogue normalisation (dialnorm), 241, 488–9

Differential amplifiers, 344–5

Differential signals, 341

Diffuse fields, 18–21

Digidesign, 291, 291

Digital audio:

applications, 287–324

audio data reduction, 235–41

compression systems, 31

consumer formats, 271–5

digital information, 194–5

editing, 278–86

filtering, 230–2, 230

interconnecting devices, 306–24

principles, 193–242

reverberation, 232–3, 365–7

signal chain, 199–220

surround sound, 486–92

workstations, 276–8

Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), 235

Digital Audio Stationary Head (DASH), 244, 248, 251, 252

Digital Audio Tape (DAT), 207, 208, 245, 248–50, 313, 423

Digital delay, 368–9

Digital mixers, 120–1, 122–3, 132–3, 141, 149–53

Digital multi-effects processors, 367–8

Digital noise extraction, 191–2

Digital Radio, 235

Digital recording, 157, 243–54, 243–86

A/D conversion, 199–220

channel coding, 245–6

consumer formats, 271–5

crosstalk, 539–40

D/A conversion, 202–6, 221–2

disk-based systems, 254–64

editing, 253–4

error correction, 247–8

formats, 248–52

harmonic distortion, 536

MIDI contrast, 375–6

signal processing, 227–35

timecode, 419

Digital signal processing (DSP), 227–35

advanced software, 292–3

binaural stereo, 439–40, 466–7

multi-microphone pick-up, 468

plug-ins, 290

Digital Theater Systems (DTS), 241, 489

Digital Versatile Disc (DVD), 273–4

data reduction, 207

DTS, 489

DVD-Audio, 207, 237, 274, 302–4, 478, 491–2

DVD-R, 273

DVD-RAM, 273–4

DVD+RW, 273–4

DVD-RW, 273–4

DVD-Video, 274, 301–4

formats, 273

mastering, 301–4

MLP, 291–2

optical disks, 258

sampling frequency, 208

surround sound, 487

Digital-to-analogue (D/A) conversion, 199, 202–6, 219, 221–2, 299–300, 306

DIM, 118

DIN, 170, 379, 459

Dipole aerials, 68, 68–9

Dipole loudspeakers, 476, 500–1

Direct (mixer control), 112

Direct current, 12

Direct Stream Digital (DSD), 213, 222–4, 274–5

digital interfaces, 315–16, 315

editing software, 287–8

file formats, 268–70

sampling frequency, 207

Direct Stream Transfer (DST), 237, 275

Directional responses, 46–54

Directivity, 18, 91–3

DirectX, 291

Disk-based systems, 243, 254–64

Distortion:

amplifiers, 326, 330–1

analogue recording, 193

binaural stereo, 440–2

crossover, 326

dither, 216

DSP, 228

dynamic range, 214

harmonic distortion, 30, 533–5

human perception, 30

intermodulation, 30, 538–9

loudspeakers, 89, 91, 94–5

magnetic recording, 157, 160, 171, 172, 175

metering, 137

MIDI, 377

mixers, 134

phase, 227

quantising error, 209–16

radio microphones, 71–3, 72

requantisation, 224–7, 226

slew rate, 331

track formats, 169–70

Distributed mode loudspeakers (DML), 77–9, 78

Distribution amplifier, 358

Dither, 215, 216–18, 225–7

Diversity reception, 72–3, 73

DLS see Downloadable

Sounds DML see Distributed mode loudspeakers

Dolby A, 186–7, 186, 187, 188–9, 481

Dolby B, 178, 184–5

Dolby C, 168, 185–6

Dolby Digital, 240–1, 301, 303, 486–9

Dolby EX, 475, 486, 487

Dolby Noise, 189

Dolby ProLogic, 480–3, 482

Dolby S, 168

Dolby SR, 187–8, 189–90, 481, 487–8

Dolby SR-D, 487–8

Dolby Stereo, 479, 480–3, 486, 487–8

Dolby Surround, 480–3, 486

Dome tweeters, 83, 83

Double-diaphragm capacitor microphones, 56–7, 56

Double-tracking, 233

Downloadable Sounds (DLS), 409–11, 416

Drive units, 74–84

Drop-frame timecode, 420

Drop-in, 428

Drop-outs, 253, 428

DSD see Direct Stream Digital

DSO cards, 276–8

DSP see digital signal processing

DST see Direct Stream Transfer

DTS see Digital Theater Systems

Ducking effect, 362

Dummy head techniques, 460, 460, 465–7, 511–12

DUMP, 115–16, 116

DVD see Digital Versatile Disc

Dynamic microphones see Moving-coil microphones

Dynamic range, 214–16, 224–5, 241, 296–8, 297, 536–7

Dynamic voice allocation, 406–8

Dynamics control, 362–3

Dynamics processing, 233, 233

Dynamics section, 112–13

Ear, 25–30, 26

Early reflections, 23, 36–8, 39, 364

Earth loops, 337, 338, 342–3, 350, 355

EBU see European Broadcasting Union;

SMPTE/EBU timecode

Echo, 164, 230

Echo chambers, 363–4

Echo devices, 363–5, 370–1, 371

Echo plates, 364–5, 364

Echoes, 23, 34

Edit decision list (EDL), 270, 279, 280–1, 284, 426–8

Edit points, 229, 254, 280–6

Editing:

CD, 271

digital tape recording, 253–4

disk-based, 278–86

edit decision list, 270, 280–1, 284, 426–8

file formats, 265

history, 156

mixing approches, 128–9

modes, 283–4

software, 287–90

synchronisers, 426–8

EDL see Edit decision list

Effective radiated power (ERP), 67

Effects, 111, 117, 191

digital mixers, 120–1

DSP, 232–3

MIDI, 403–4

Effects returns, 119

EIC timecode, 249–50

Eigentones, 21–4

EIN see Equivalent input noise

Electret microphones, 46, 48, 53, 56

Electrical sound, 11–13

Electromagnetic transducers, 42, 155

Electronic balancing, 344–5

Electronic bargraph meters, 137–9, 138

Electrons, 12–13

Electrostatic loudspeakers, 76, 76

End-fire configuration, 457

Equal-loudness contours, 28–31

Equalisation (EQ):

binaural stereo, 440–2, 444–5

clipping, 135

Compact Cassette, 179–80

D/A conversion, 222

digital mixers, 150

digital multi-effects processors, 367

digital signal processing, 229, 230–2

dummy head techniques, 465–6

frequency response, 533

graphic equaliser, 359–61

level setting, 130

magnetic recording, 160–3, 171–2, 173–6

mastering, 299

mixers, 96, 98, 103–5, 107, 113–14, 120–7

record players, 543–4

stereo line input, 127

variable Q, 114

Equivalent input noise (EIN), 131–2

ERP see Effective radiated power

Error detection/correction, 199, 247–8, 249, 253, 256, 306

ES-bus, 426

ESU, AES-3 interface, 307–11

Ethernet, 319, 417

European Broadcasting Union (EBU), 269, 420, 476

Fader flip, 105

Fader law, 98, 99, 229

Fader reverse, 114–15, 118

Faders, 98, 99

automation, 140–5, 147

digital mixers, 120–1, 150–3

digital signal processing, 228–9

grouping, 106

in-line mixers, 104–5, 105

master, 119

Faulkner pair, 459–60, 459

Feedback, 231, 368

Field-effect transistor (FET), 44, 145, 145

Figure-eight microphones (bidirectional pattern), 48–50, 49, 56–7, 434

coincident pairs, 447–69, 448, 453–4

stereo, 436–8

stereo microphones, 59

surround sound recording, 511–12, 515

File formats, 264–76, 406–11

Film:

5.1 channel surround, 476

7.1 channel surround, 478–80, 479

data reduction, 241

Dolby Digital, 486–9

four-channel surround, 471

microphones, 65

SDDS, 489–90

stereo, 434

surround sound, 480–3, 497, 498, 499, 500–1

three-channel (3-0) stereo, 469–70

THX system, 484

timecode, 423

Filtering:

analogue-to-digital (A/D) conversion, 202–6

digital signal processing, 230–2

graphic equalisers, 360–1

mixers, 96, 111, 113–14, 125–7

oversampling, 218–19

requantisation, 224–5

sample rate conversion, 234

Finite impulse response (FIR) filter (transversal filter), 231, 231

Firewire, 262, 322–3, 373, 381, 383

First harmonic, 6, 6

First overtone, 6

Five-channel surround sound stereo, 469

Flange, 370–1

Fletcher-Munson curves, 29

Flutter, 23, 246, 253, 537–8

Flux, 159, 161, 170–1

FM channel code see bi-phase mark

FM (Frequency Modulation):

compressor/limiter, 362

pilot tone, 185

radio microphones, 66

sampling frequency, 208

Foldback, 118

Formatting, 256, 256, 261–4

Four-channel surround (3-1 stereo), 470–2, 472

Fourier transformation, 4, 7, 230

Fractional-ratio conversion, 234

Fragmentation, 263, 264

Frame rates, 207, 419–20

Free fields, 18–21

Frequency, 1–3

control, 113

critical bandwidth, 28

directional response patterns of microphones, 47–8, 50, 52–3

directivity of speakers, 91–3

displaying, 13–14

distance perception, 39

electrical sound waves, 13

EQ on mixers, 121–7

equal-loudness contours, 29, 30–1

fundamental, 5–6, 6

graphic equalisers, 359–61

harmonics, 5

human perception, 26–8, 29

interaural time difference, 32–3

line spectra, 4, 5

masking, 31

microphones, 41, 42–5

mixers, 113

phase, 8–11

radio microphones, 67, 68

room modes, 22–4

sampling frequency, 206–8, 207

spatial perception, 35

speed of sound, 3–4

Frequency response, 171, 180, 529–32

amplifiers, 330

binaural stereo, 442

digital signal processing, 230, 230

loudspeakers, 89–90, 90

mixers, 134

noise reduction, 188

stereo misalignment effects, 446

Frequency shifter, 368

Frequency spectra:

displaying, 13–14, 14

non-repetitive sounds, 7, 7

repetitive sounds, 5–7

sampling, 202, 203, 203

spatial perception, 36

Frequency-dividing (crossover) networks, 83–4, 85–6

Frequency-domain plots, 4, 5, 7, 13–14

Fukada Tree, 508, 508

Full normalling, 356

Full-featured synchronisers, 426–8, 427

Fundamental frequency, 5–6, 6

Gain, 16

automation, 140–5

compressor/limiter, 363

digital signal processing, 228–9, 233

level setting, 129–30

microphones, 60–1, 66

mixers, 98, 105, 108–9, 117

monitors, 98

Gated snare drum, 191

Gates, 363, 370

General MIDI, 399–400, 406–8

GPO-type sockets, 354–5

Graphic equalisers, 359–61, 359, 370

Ground reflection, 39

Grouping, mixers, 106, 108–9, 131

Guitar amplifiers, 365

Haas Effect, 34

Harmonic distortion, 30, 89, 211, 213, 330–1, 533–5

Harmonics, 4, 5–6

Harmonisers, 371

Head bumps, 162, 175

Head inspection, 172–3

Head-and-torso simulator (HATS), 465, 465

Head-related panning, 518–20

Head-related transfer function (HRTF), 34–6, 35–6, 440–4, 465–7, 517

Headphones:

binaural localisation, 432

dummy head techniques, 465–6

impedance, 99

in-the-head localisation, 36

loudspeaker stereo, 442–5

naturalness, 39–40

near-coincident microphones, 458

spatial perception, 38

stereo, 438–42

two-channel stereo, 430

Heat, 15

Helical aerials, 69, 71

Helical scanning, 244

Helmholtz absorbers, 20

Hertz (Hz), 1

Hexadecimal, 197, 197, 198, 209, 211

Hi-com, 188

High-pass filters (HPF), 111, 113, 126–7, 127, 230

Hiss:

dbx, 188

dither, 216

equal-loudness contours, 31

frequency response, 532

microphones, 61

mixers, 111

noise reduction, 182, 190–1

pre-emphasis, 183

Hold, 249

Home THX system, 484

Horn loudspeakers, 81–2, 88, 89, 91

Host-based audio processing, 278

HPF see High-pass filters

HRTF see Head-related transfer function

Hum, 31, 182

Hypercardioid microphones, 53–4, 53, 449, 453, 454

Hz see Hertz

IDE interface, 262

IEC interface, 311–13

IEEE 1394, 416–17

IFF see Interchange format files

Impedance, 13

100 volt lines, 345–7

600 ohms, 347–50

amplifiers, 332

cables, 337–8, 339–41

DI boxes, 350–2

headphones, 99

loudspeakers, 84, 87–8, 328

microphones, 43, 59, 99

mixers, 133–4

radio microphones, 71

splitter boxes, 352–3

transformers, 334–6

Impulse response, 230–1, 230, 232–3

In-line console, 103–6, 104, 107

In-place solo, 117

In-the-head localisation, 36, 439, 442

INA array, 505–6, 506, 507

Inductance, 339

Inductors, 13

‘Infinite baffle’ systems, 79

Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter (recursive filter), 231–3, 232

Inharmonic partials, 6–7

Input channels, 96–8, 110, 111, 149–52, 151

Input gain control, 107–9

Input noise, 131–3

Insert points, 119–20, 134

Insertion return socket, 355–6

Insertion send socket, 355–6

Integral synchronisers, 147

Interactive authoring, 305–6

Interaural time delay (ITD), 32–3, 33, 36, 432–3, 442–5

Interchange format files (IFF), 265–70

Interconnection, 150, 306–24, 334–58

Interfaces:

analogue, 334–58

digital devices, 306–24

digital mixers, 150

MIDI, 373–417

peripheral, 262, 276–8

workstations, 276–8

Interference:

balanced lines, 341, 343

common mode rejection, 132

digital audio, 193–4

microphones, 59, 60–2

MIDI, 379

noise reduction, 182

star-quad cable, 343–4

Interleaving, 247–8, 247

Intermodulation (IM) distortion, 30, 538–9

Internet, 239, 300, 305–6

data reduction, 235, 241

protocols, 320–1

Interpolation, 234, 248, 249

Inverse-square law, 17, 17, 18

iPod, 240

ITD see Interaural time delay

Jackfields, 96–7, 111–12, 119–20, 150, 354–8

Key pressure messages, 388–9

Keygroups, 397

Kilobyte, 195

Lake Huron, 292–3

LANs see Local area networks

Laser pickups, 549

Latency, 277, 290, 401

LCRS surround, 470–2

Least significant bit (LSB), 195, 216

MIDI, 389–91

quantising error, 211, 213

Requantisation, 224–7

LEDs see Light Emitting Diodes

Level:

5.1 channel surround, 478

amplifiers, 328–9

digital signal processing, 228–9

input noise, 132–3

magnetic recording, 170–2

mastering, 296–8, 297

metering, 135–40

metering standards, 139–40

microphones, 46

mixers, 129–30

noise reduction, 185–7, 188

stereo misalignment effects, 446

Level difference stereo, 434, 435–8

microphones, 447–51

multi-microphone pick-up, 466–7

near-coincident microphones, 458

spaced microphone configurations, 461–4

surround sound, 504–5, 517

Lexicon Logic 7, 484–6, 485

LFE channel see Low-frequency effects

Licences, radio microphones, 67

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), 137, 138, 142–3

Limiters, 66, 362–3, 363

Line level:

microphones, 46

mixers, 96, 98

open-reel recorders, 164

stereo input, 127

Line spectra, 4, 5, 6

Line-up, 188–90

Line-up standards, 136, 139–40

Line-up tone, 66

Lines, 150, 334–58

Liquid crystal displays (LCD), 137, 138

Loading, loudspeakers, 79–82

Local area networks (LANs), 316–20, 317

Locks, synchronisers, 427

Logic control, 178

Logical operations, 198–9

Long Playing (LP) records, 156, 193, 533, 540, 541–9

Longitudinal waves, 1, 3

Loop, 428

Loop resistance, 337–8

Lossless coding, 236–7, 236, 274, 491–2

Lossy coding, 236–40, 236

Loudhailers, 82

Loudness, 1, 18

critical bandwidth, 28

human perception, 25, 27–30, 39

measuring SPLs, 19

see also Amplitude

Loudspeakers, 74–95

100 volt lines, 345–7

5.1 channel surround, 472–8

active, 85–6

Ambisonics, 495–6

binaural stereo, 439, 442–5

cabinets, 83, 84, 86

cable resistance, 338

damping factor, 332–3

directivity, 91–3

distortion, 89, 91, 94–5, 536

dummy head techniques, 465–6

electromagnetic transducers, 42

enclosure, 74

four-channel surround, 470–2

frequency response, 89–90, 90, 531, 533

impedance, 87–8, 328, 332, 345–7

Lexicon Logic 7, 484–6

loading, 79–82

mounting, 79–82, 498

multichannel panning, 516–20

multiple-speaker systems, 92–3

naturalness, 39–40

performance, 87–93

phase, 93–4

positioning, 94–5

power, 15, 91

power amplifiers, 325–6

precedence effect, 34

reverberation time, 21

room modes, 24

sensitivity, 88–9, 91

setting up, 93–5

surround sound, 497–501, 504

systems, 82–4

three-channel (3-0) stereo, 469–70, 470

THX system, 484

transaural stereo, 443–4

two-channel stereo, 429–38, 445–7

types, 74–9

Low-frequency effects (LFE) channel, 473, 476–7, 478, 480, 488, 502

Low-pass filters (LPF), 111, 113

DSD, 223

DSP, 230

EQ section, 126–7

oversampling, 218–19, 220

sample rate conversion, 234

sampling frequency, 207

LPF see Low-pass filters

LPs see Long Playing records

LR microphones, 429, 445–51, 452–3

LSB see Least significant bit

LTC see Longitudinal timecode

Lucasfilm, 484, 486

Magnetic hard disks, 255–7, 255

Magnetic recording, 156, 159–64, 170–2

Magnetic tape, 156–9

Magneto-optical (M-O) format, 258, 272

Masking, 28, 30, 31, 235, 237–40

Mass storage media, 255–64

Master control section, 118–19

Master faders, 119

Mastering, 128, 129, 157, 164, 294–306

Matrixed surround sound systems, 480–6

Maximum output level (MOL), 171, 172, 535, 537

Mayer SB-1 loudspeaker, 93

Mechanical transport functions, 176–8

Media Exhange Format (MXF), 270–1

Megabytes, 195

Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP), 237, 274, 303–4, 491–2

Meter take-off point, 140

Metering, 121, 129–30, 135–40, 171

MFM channel code, 245, 247

Mic level trim, 106

Mic to mix, 115

Mic/Line switch, 111

Microphones, 41–73

600 ohms, 347–50

Ambisonics, 493–5

balanced lines, 341, 342

bass tip-up, 45

Bessel Array, 93

cable capacitance, 339–40, 340

cable resistance, 337–8

conversion to electrical sound waves, 11–12, 12

DI boxes, 350–2

digital mixers, 120

directional responses, 46–54

dummy head techniques, 465–7

early history, 155

electromagnetic transducers, 42

end-fire configuration, 457

frequency response, 531, 533

harmonic distortion, 536

impedance, 99, 133

level setting on mixers, 129–30

mixers, 96, 97–8, 106, 107–11

mixing approaches, 128–9

near-coincident, 458–60

noise, 59, 61–2, 132

performance, 59–62

powering options, 62–5

radio, 65–73

sensitivity, 59, 60

side-fire configurations, 457

splitter boxes, 352–3

star-quad cables, 344

stereo, 57–8, 127

surround sound, 502–16

transformers, 336

two-channel stereo, 431–6, 445–64

types, 41–6

Midas Heritage 3000, 152–3, 152

Middle and side (MS) see Sum and difference

MIDI see Musical Instrument Digital Interface

MIDI Machine Control (MMC), 147

MIDI Timecode (MTC), 413–14

Miller-squared channel code, 245, 247

Minidisc (MD), 239, 272

Mix routing switches, 112

Mixdown, 118, 129

fader automation, 140–5

multitrack mixers, 102–3

noise gates, 191

routing section of mixer, 111–12

split-monitoring console, 103

Mixers, 96–153

600 ohms, 347–50

automation, 140–9

basic operation, 129–31

coincident-pair microphones, 457, 458

DI boxes, 350

dither, 216

DSP, 228–30

facilities, 107–20

grouping, 106, 108–9

input channels, 96–8

jackfields, 354–8

metering systems, 135–40

mixing approaches, 128–9

multitrack, 102–16

normalling, 355–7

output section, 98

sensitivity, 98

six-channel, 96–101

splitter boxes, 352–3

surround sound, 497–9, 517

technical specifications, 131–5

see also Digital mixers

Mixing noise, 133

MLP see Meridian Lossless Packing

MMC see MIDI Machine Control

Mobile phones, 408–9

Modes, 6

Modified Discrete Cosine Transform (MDCT) filter blocks, 239, 272

MOL see Maximum output level

Monitor fader, 105, 106

Monitor mix, 102, 130

Monitor mixers, 103, 104, 127–8

Monitor phase reverse, 118

Monitor selection, 118

Monitor signal path, 102–3, 104–5

Monitor-to-bus, 115

Monitoring, loudspeakers, 85

Monitors:

dedicated monitor mixers, 103, 104, 127–8

mixers, 96, 98, 118

PFL, 101

surround sound, 497–501

Mono:

four-channel surround, 471

multi-microphone pick-up, 467–8

reverb devices, 367

spaced microphones, 462

stereo vector summation, 437

track formats, 169–70

two-channel signal formats, 445

MONO (mixer control), 118

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor), 327

Most significant bit (MSB), 195, 196, 199

Motion sensing, 178

Moving-coil loudspeakers, 74–6, 75, 79

Moving-coil (dynamic) microphones, 41–3, 53, 60, 61–2

MP3 see MPEG-1, Layer

MPEG (Moving Pictures Expert Group) standards, 237–40, 239, 268, 490–1

MPEG-1, 239, 239, 490–1

MPEG-1, Layer 3 (MP3), 239, 239, 268, 305, 491

MPEG-2, 239, 239, 490–1

MPEG-2 AAC (Advanced Audio Coding), 239–40, 490–1

MPEG-2 BC (Backwards Compatible), 239, 490–1, 491

MPEG-4, 240, 305–6, 373, 409–11, 490

MPX see Multiplexer

MS see Sum and difference

MSB see Most significant bit

MSP, 293, 293

MTC see MIDI Timecode

Multi-effects processors, 367–8, 367, 371

Multi-microphone pick-up, 463, 466–7, 513

Multi-path distortion, 71–3, 72

Multi-Speaker arrays, 327

Multichannel stereo, 469–518

Multiplexer (MPX), 143, 185

Multitrack recorders, 167–8, 168

alignment, 176

cassette recorders, 180–1

DASH machines, 251–2, 252

digital formats, 251–2, 252

history, 156

in-line mixers, 106

jackfields, 355

mixers, 102–16, 127

mixing approaches, 128–9

noise reduction, 187, 190

track formats, 170

Multitrack routing buses, 131

Mults, 357

Music:

mixing approaches, 128–9

Musical notes, 386–7, 387, 397–400

timing data, 411–13

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), 373–417

automation, 141, 146, 146

cables, 379

channels, 384–5

connectors, 379

contrast with digital recording, 375–6

control of sound generators, 397–406

digital mixers, 121

digital multi-effects processors, 367–8, 371–2

editing software, 287

file formats, 265

functions of sound generators, 400–1

General MIDI, 406–8

IEEE 1394, 416–17

interfacing with computers, 380–3

messages, 384–97, 400–4

mixers, 102

mixing approaches, 129

note assignment, 397–400

ports, 380–3

simple interconnection, 380

software, 383

synchronisation, 411–14

USB, 415–16, 415

Musical instruments:

audio groups, 131

DI boxes, 350–2

early recordings, 154

level setting, 129–30

microphones, 41, 45, 62

MIDI, 373–417

splitter boxes, 352–3

Mute, 116, 117, 145, 145, 147, 249

MXF see Media Exchange Format

NAB, 189, 189

NAB format, 170, 423

Nagra-D recorder, 250–1, 251

Naturalness, 39–40

NC see noise criterion

Near field, 18

Near-coincident microphones, 458–60

Near-field monitors, 18

Negative numbers, binary system, 195, 196

Networks, 308, 316–20

Neumann KU100, 444, 460, 466, 466, 512

Neumann RSM 19li, 454–5, 455–6

Nibbles, 195–7, 198

Nodes, 6, 6

Noise, 4

amplifiers, 332

analogue recording, 193

audio bit rate reduction, 237–8

digital audio, 193–4

digital mixers, 120

digital restoration software, 294–6, 294–6

DSP, 228

dynamic range, 214

error correction in digital recording, 247–8

frequency spectra, 7, 7

magnetic recording, 171

magnetic tape, 163, 164, 175

masking, 31

microphones, 59, 61–2

mixers, 111, 131–3

noise shaping, 219–20, 222

quantising error, 209–16

radio microphones, 66, 71–3

sample rate conversion, 234

tape machines, 173

track formats, 169–70

see also Noise reduction

Noise criterion (NC), 19

Noise gates, 191

Noise rating (NR), 19, 189

Noise reduction, 182–92

Compact Cassette, 178, 179

line-up, 188–90

masking, 31

multitrack recorders, 168

open-reel recorders, 165

radio microphones, 70, 71–2

surround sound, 481

see also Dolby

Noise shaping, 219–20, 222, 223–5

Noise weighting curves, 537

Non-linear editing, 278–86

Non-registered parameter numbers (NRPNs), 405

Non-repetitive sounds, 7, 7

Normalling, 120, 133–4, 355–7, 356

NOS pair, 459, 459

Note assignment, 397–400

Note on/note off messages, 386–7, 388

NR see Noise rating

NRPNs see Non-registered parameter numbers

NTSC television, 207, 419–20

Nudge, 428

Null LEDs, 142–3

Nyqist frequency, 202, 204, 204, 205, 218, 220, 234

Objects, 240, 300

Octaves, 26, 28

Odd even both (mixer control), 112

Ohm’s law, 13, 64

OMFI see Open Media Framwork Interchange

Omnidirectional microphones, 47–9, 47, 48, 55–7

coincident pairs, 449–50

frequency response, 533

near-coincident pairs, 459

pressure-zone microphones, 55–6

spaced, 461–4, 461, 463, 464

stereo, 59, 431–2

surround sound recording, 505, 508–9

Open Media Framwork Interchange (OMFI), 270, 271

Open Sound Control (OSC), 417

Open-reel digital recording, 248, 251–2

Open-reel tape recording, 157, 158–9, 164–5, 176–8, 177, 243–4

Operating levels, 16

Optical disks, 257–8

ORTF pair, 459, 459

OSC see Open Sound Control

Oscillator, 119

Oscilloscope, 14, 14

Oset, 428

Out-of-phase phenomenon, 39–40

Outboard equipment, 359–72

Output BNC coax sockets, 133

Output noise, 133

Output section, 98, 149–52

Outside broadcasts, 54–5

Overdubbing, 118, 168

Overload margins, 135

Overload point, 214

Oversampling, 206, 218–19, 219, 220, 220–1, 222

Overtones, 5–7

PA systems see Public Address systems

Pad, 111

Paging systems, 345, 347

Pairwise amplitude panning, 517

PAL television, 420

Palladium, 358

PAM see Pulse amplitude modulation

Pan, 130

audio groups and mixers, 108

MIDI, 402–3, 403

mixers, 96, 98, 100, 111, 114

multi-microphone pick-up, 467–8

multichannel, 516–20

two-channel signal formats, 445

vector summation, 437

Pan-pot law, 467–8, 516–20, 519

Panel speakers, 76–9

Panned-spot microphones, 447

Parabolic microphones, 55, 55

Parallel format, 197, 197, 209, 212

Parameter controllers, 405

Parametric equalisation, 367, 370

Partials, 5–7

Patch cords, 355, 358

Patchfield, 96–7, 111–12, 119–20, 150, 354–8

PCI see Peripheral component interface

PCM see Pulse-code modulation

PDM see Pulse Density Modulation

Peak Program Meter (PPM), 135–7, 136, 172

Peak recording level, 137

Peaking, 113

Peaking filters, 230

Perception, 14, 16, 25–40, 214, 429–42

Peripheral component interface (PCI), 276–7

Peripheral interfaces, 262, 276–8

PFL see Pre-fade listen Phantom images, 438, 450–1

5.1 channel surround, 477–8, 502

multi-microphone pick-up, 467

quadrophonics, 492

spaced arrays, 462

surround sound, 503, 504–5, 516

two-channel stereo, 434–8

Phantom power, 46, 62–4, 65

balanced lines, 342

DI boxes, 352

digital mixers, 150

jackfields, 120

mixers, 96, 98, 109–10

Phase, 8–11

amplifiers, 333

binaural stereo, 442

cardioid pattern microphones, 50

coincident-pair microphones, 447, 450–7

directivity of speakers, 91–3

figure-eight pattern

microphones, 49, 50

loudspeakers, 79, 93–4

naturalness, 39–40

spaced microphones, 462–3

spatial perception, 32–3

stereo misalignment effects, 446

Phase comparators, 246

Phase distortion, 227

Phase meters, 138–9

Phase reverse, 111

Phonograph, 154, 155

Phons, 18, 28–30

Pilot tone, 185

Pink noise, 7, 89, 179–80, 189

Pit Signal Processing (PSP), 304–5

Pitch:

human perception, 26–8

inharmonic overtones, 7

MIDI, 386–7, 387

non-repetitive sounds, 7

repetitive sounds, 4

Pitch bend wheel, 394

Pitch shifting, 233

Plasma display, 137, 138

Plug-ins, 277, 290–2, 299

Polar diagrams, 46–54, 56–7, 447–51

Polar response, loudspeakers, 76, 92

Polyphonic key pressure, 388–9

Polyphony, 399–400

Portable recorders, 166–7, 167

Portastudio, 180–1

Ports, MIDI, 380–3

Post-fade auxiliary, 130–1

Post-roll, 428

Power, 16–18

Power amplifiers, 325–33

Power bandwidth, 330

Power handling, 91

Power output, 329–30

PPM see Peak Program Meter

PPQN see Pulses-per-quarter-note

PQ encoding, 300–1

Pre-delay, 364, 364, 365

Pre-emphasis, 182–8

Pre-fade auxiliary, 130

Pre-fade listen (PFL), 98, 101, 116, 129–30

Pre-roll, 428

Precedence effect, 34

spaced microphone configurations, 461–3

surround sound, 481–2

two-channel stereo, 431, 432–3, 436–8

Pressure, 16–18

Pressure-gradient microphones, 45, 49–50, 53

Pressure-zone microphones (PZM), 55–6

Print-through, 163–4, 182

Probability distribution, dither, 217

Program change messages, 393–4, 404–8, 408

ProTools, 277

Pseudo-binaural recording, 460, 460, 511–12, 518–20

PSP see Pit Signal

Processing Psychoacoustics:

Ambisonics, 492

coincident pairs, 449–50

data reduction, 237–40, 238

digital recording, 214

effects, 370

four-channel surround, 471–2

surround sound, 517

Public Address (PA) systems:

frequency shifter, 368

horn loading, 81–2

loudspeakers, 74, 75, 85

power bandwidth, 330

sensitivity, 88

splitter boxes, 352–3

Pulse, frequency spectra, 7, 7

Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), 202, 202, 203, 219, 222

Pulse Density Modulation (PDM), 223

Pulse-code modulation (PCM), 196, 208, 214–16

audio data reduction, 235–9

digital tape recording, 243–4

editing software, 287–8

interfaces, 312

PCM-1610 (Sony), 248

PCM-1630 (Sony), 248

PCMCIA, 262

Pulses-per-quarter-note (PPQN), 411

Pumping noise, 185, 188

Pure tones, 4

PZM see Pressure-zone microphones

Q, 113

digital multi-effects processors, 367

EQ section, 125–7

graphic equalisers, 359–61, 360

radio microphones, 72

variable, 114

Quad ESL 63, 76, 77

Quadraphonic reproduction, 471, 492

Quantising, 200, 202, 208–17, 209, 211, 224–7

Quantising error, 208–16, 209–13

Quantising noise, 213, 219–20, 221, 224–5, 237–8, 238

Quantising resolution, 209–16, 218, 224–7, 307

Quarter-frame MTC messages, 414

R-DAT, 157, 244, 245, 248–50, 250, 423

Radio:

compressor/limiter, 362

frequency response, 531

sampling frequency, 208

Radio microphones, 46, 65–73

RAI pair, 459

RAID see Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks

Random Access Memory (RAM), 258–60, 259, 276

Random errors, 247–8, 249

Rarefaction, 1, 2, 3, 8, 11–12, 12

Re-entrant horns, 82, 82

Reactance, 13

RealAudio, 241, 320

Receivers, 66, 67, 69–73

Record alignment, 173–5

Recording, 154–81, 501–16

Rectangular probability distribution function (RPDF), 217

Recursive filter see Infinite impulse response filter

Redithering, 228, 299–300

Redundancy, 248

Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID), 256, 257

Reed-Solomon encoding, 248–50

Reel-rocking, 284–6

Reference levels, 135, 137, 139–40, 171–2

Reflections, 20, 23

distance perception, 39

free/reverberant fields, 18–21

radio microphones, 71

room modes, 22–4

simulating, 363–7

spatial perception, 36–8, 39

Registered parameter

numbers (RPNS), 405

Release media, 300–6

Remote control, 147

Repetitive sounds, 5–7

Replay alignment, 173

Replay head effects, 162

Requantisation, 224–7, 238, 299

Reset message, 397

Resistance, 12–13, 337–8, 345–6

Resistance and capacitance (RC), 163

Resonance, loudspeakers, 79–80, 87–8

Restoration, 294–6, 294–6

Retrofit automation, 141, 147

Reverb devices, 23, 119, 363–7, 370–1

Reverberant fields, 18–21, 37

Reverberation, 230

digital signal processing, 227, 232–3

distance perception, 39

multi-microphone pick-up, 467

surround sound recording, 513

Reverberation chamber, 363–4, 364

Reverberation plate, 364–5, 364

Reverberation time (RT), 20, 24, 364

RIAA, 543–4

Ribbon loudspeakers, 77, 78

Ribbon microphones, 41, 42–5

A-B powering, 65

figure-eight pattern, 48–50

noise, 61–2

phantom power, 63–4

sensitivity, 60

Rich Music Format (RMF), 409

RIFF WAVE, 267–8, 267, 268, 269

Rifle microphones, 54–5, 54

Ring tones, 408–9

RMF see Rich Music Format

RMID, 409

RMS see Root-mean-square

Rogers LS5/8 system, 85, 85

Room gain, 94

Room modes, 20–4

Root-mean-square (RMS), 330

Rotary-head systems, 244, 248, 250–1

Routing, 96, 111–12, 120–1, 131, 149

multitrack routing buses, 131

RPDF see Rectangular probability distribution function

RPNs see Registered parameter numbers

RT see Reverberation time

Rumble, 31, 111, 127, 458

SA see Structured Audio

Sabine, W. C., 20

SACD see Super Audio Compact Disc

SADiE, 287–90, 288, 289, 294, 294–6

Sample rate conversion, 234–5

Samplers, 397–418

Sampling:

A/D conversion, 199, 200, 201–8, 201

digital filtering, 230–1

interleaving, 247–8, 247

sample rate conversion, 234–5

Sampling frequency, 203, 204–8

digital-to-analogue conversion, 222

input noise, 133

noise shaping, 219–20

oversampling, 218–19

sound quality, 206–8

SAOL see Structured Audio Orchestra Language

SASL see Structured Audio Score Language

Satellite link broadcasts, 191

Sawtooth wave, 5

Scalable polyphonic MIDI (SPMIDI), 408–9

Scene memory, 121, 133, 151–3

Scenes, 240

Schoeps CMC-5 microphone, 64

Schoeps KFM6U microphone, 460, 460

Schoeps KFM360, 511–12, 512

Schoeps Sphere microphone, 444, 511–12

Screening braid, 337–44, 337–8, 344

SCSI see Small Computer Systems Interface

SDDS see Sony Dynamic Digital Sound

SECAM television, 420

Second harmonic, 6, 6, 89

Self-noise, 61–2

Semi-professional tape recorders, 165–6, 166, 168

Sequencers, 287, 290

Serial format, 197, 197, 209, 212, 375, 377

Session masters, 128

Shelving, 113

Shelving curve, 125, 126–7

Shelving filters, 230

Shift register, 197, 197, 212

Side-fire configurations, 457

Sidebands, 203, 204, 205

Signal cancellation, 72

Signal chain, 199–220, 199

Signal paths, mixers, 103–5

Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, 536–7

amplifiers, 332

digital systems, 213–16

DSD, 224

microphones, 61–2

radio microphones, 66, 70

SIL see Sound intensity level

Simple harmonic motion, 2

Simple waveforms, 4, 5

Simulcast, 115

Sine waves, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 8–11

Single-ended noise reduction, 190–1

Six-channel mixer, 96–101

Slate, 98, 119

Slew rate distortion, 331

Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI), 262

SMART see System Managed Audio Resource Technique

SMF see Standard MIDI files

SMPTE/EBU timecode, 245, 250, 270, 413–14, 419–22, 421

Snapshot storage, 141, 149

Snare drum, gated, 191

Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), 419–22

Software, 287–90, 292–3, 294–6, 383

Solid state recording formats, 276

Solo, 116–17

Sone, 30

Song position pointers (SPPs), 411–13

Sony, 315–16

Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS), 241, 489–90

Sound cards, 276–7, 278, 381, 383

Sound controllers, 402, 403–4

Sound Designer formats, 264–5, 265

Sound field, 2

Sound files, 264–76, 279–80

Sound intensity level (SIL), 17, 17

Sound power, 16–18

Sound pressure level (SPL), 15, 16–18

free/reverberant fields, 18, 20, 21, 21

human perception, 28–30

measuring, 19

microphone sensitivity, 60

reverberation time, 21

Sound quality:

A/D conversion, 200–1

data reduction, 235, 237

mastering, 298–300

quantising resolution, 209–16

requantisation, 225–7

sampling frequency, 206–8

Sound scenes, 240

Sound segments, 279–80, 284

Sound stage width, 37

Sound waves, 1–14

Soundfield microphones, 58, 60, 513–16, 514–16

SoundFonts, 410

Spaced diversity, 72–3, 73

Spaced microphones, 429, 431–4, 445–64

Spaciousness:

apparent source width, 37

binaural stereo, 440

four-channel surround, 471

near-coincident microphones, 458–60

spaced microphones, 462

surround sound recording, 505

two-channel stereo, 430

Spatial ambience, 506–11

Spatial equalisation, 444–5

Spatial perception, 32–40, 93–4, 429–42

Spectral skewing, 186, 187–8

Spectrum analyser, 14, 14, 138

Speed of sound, 3–4, 8

SPL see Sound pressure level

Splash, 94

Splice editing, 253

Split-monitoring console, 103, 104

Splitter boxes, 352–3

SPMIDI see Scalable polyphonic MIDI (SPMIDI)

Spoked-wheel effect, 204–5

Spot erasure, 168

Spot microphones, 467–8, 502–4, 513

Spring reverb, 365

Square wave, 5, 5

SSL, Total Recall, 147–8

Stage box, 358

Standard MIDI files (SMF), 406, 407

Standards:

5.1 channel surround, 474–6, 474

digital interface formats, 307–14

file formats, 264–74

MIDI, 374–5, 406–8

sampling frequency, 206–7, 207

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) meters, 71

Standing waves, 21–4, 22

Star-quad cable, 343–4, 344

Stationary-head systems, 243–4

Status bytes, 384–5, 388

Stereo:

history, 155–6

misalignment effects, 446

mixers, 96, 98

pan control and mixers, 100

reverb devices, 367

signal metering, 139

surround sound, 469–518

track formats, 169–70

two-channel stereo, 429–68

vector summation, 436, 437

Stereo line input, 127

Stereo microphones, 57–8

Stereo mix buses, 100

Stereo mix outputs, 108

Stereo mix path, 102–3

Stereo width, 448, 449–50, 453–4, 455

Stereophonic situations, 432–3

Storage, 254–64

CD, 271

data reduction, 235–6

DVD, 273–4

file formats, 265–6, 267

sampling frequency, 208

Solid state recording formats, 276

Straight-to-stereo, 128

Structured Audio (SA), 240, 373

Structured Audio Orchestra Language (SAOL), 240, 409–11

Structured Audio Score Language (SASL), 409–11

Studio recorders, 164–5, 165

Subwoofers, 86, 475, 476–7, 499–500, 501

Sum and difference (MS), 57–9, 127, 139, 437, 445–58

Super Audio Compact Disc (SACD), 222–3, 237, 272–4, 275, 478

file formats, 268–70

mastering, 304–5

Supercardioid microphones, 504, 510–11

Surround sound, 128, 240–1, 303, 462, 469–518

Swept mid, 125

Switchable polar patterns, 56–7, 56

SWR see Standing Wave Ratio Sync replay, 168, 169

Synchronisation, 235, 307, 374, 411–14, 419–28

Synchronisers, 424–9

Synthesisers, 350, 373–7, 397–418

Synthetic audio control, 373–417

System exclusive message, 395–6

System messages, 385–6

System real-time messages, 411–13

Tail-out storage, 164

Talkback, 118

Tape counters, 178

Tape recording:

5.1 channel surround, 475

alignment, 171–6

analogue, 156–81

automation, 147

cable capacitance, 340–1

cable resistance, 337

crosstalk, 540

digital, 157, 243–54

dynamic range, 537

frequency response, 533

harmonic distortion, 535, 536

history, 156

mechanical transport functions, 176–8

metering, 136–7

noise reduction, 182–92, 187–8

sampling frequency, 207

tape recorder, 164–9

timecode, 422–4

Tascam digital interface (TDIF), 314, 314

TDM see Time Division Multiplex

Telcom c4, 188

Telecommunications, 348

Telephones, 207, 348, 531

Television, 65, 208, 419–20, 476

Test tapes, 171–2, 173, 180

THD see Total Harmonic Distortion

Theatre:

digital mixers, 150

jackfields, 355

loudspeakers, 86

microphones, 54

radio microphones, 65

track routing switches, 112

Theile, 509–11, 518

Third-harmonic distortion, 171, 172, 534–5

Three-channel (3-0) stereo, 431–2, 431, 434, 469–70

Three-way loudspeaker systems, 84

THX system, 483, 484, 486

TID see Transient intermodulation distortion

Tie-clip microphones, 46, 48

Time constant, 161–3, 161

Time difference:

near-coincident microphones, 458

spaced microphone configurations, 461–4

spatial perception, 32–3

stereo, 432–3, 434, 436–8

surround sound, 504–5, 517

Time Division Multiplex (TDM), 277–8

Time-domain plots, 3, 4, 13–14

Timecode, 245, 419–28

automation, 147, 149

digital mixers, 121

MIDI, 411–14

R-DAT, 249–50

synchronisers, 424–9

tape recording, 422–4

Total automation systems, 141, 147–8

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), 134, 536

Total Recall, 147–8, 149

TPDF see Triangular probability distribution function

Track formats, 169–70

Track routing switches, 111–12

Track subgroup, 106

Tracklaying, mixers, 102–3

Transaural stereo, 443–4

Transducers, 155

echo plate, 364–5

electromagnetic, 42

frequency response, 532–3

harmonic distortion, 535

loudspeakers, 74, 76

microphones, 41

spring reverb, 365

Transformers, 334–6

100 volt lines, 345–7

balanced lines, 341, 341, 342–3, 344–5

DI boxes, 350–1

impedance, 334–6

inductance, 339

splitter boxes, 352–3

Transient distortion, 330–1, 331

Transient intermodulation distortion (TID), 330–1

Transmission lines, 80, 348

Transmitters, radio microphones, 66, 66, 67, 68–73

Transversal filter (FIR filter) see Finite impulse response filter

Transverse scanning, 244

Transverse waves, 1, 2

Treble, 30–1, 190–1

Triangular probability distribution function (TPDF), 217

True Total Reset, 148

Tune request, 396

Tweeters, 77, 83–4, 83, 91, 92

Two-channel panel laws, 467–8

Two-channel stereo, 429–68

Two-element aerials, 69

Two-track formats, 169–70

Two-way speaker systems, 83, 87, 87

Two’s complement, 196

UART see Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter

UHF band, 67

Unbalanced lines, 337–9

Unbalanced outputs, 350–2

Unidirectional pattern microphones see Cardioid microphones

Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART), 146, 146, 377

Universal Serial Bus (USB), 262, 323, 373, 380–3, 415–16, 415

Universal system exclusive messages, 395–6

USB see Universal Serial Bus

User datagram protocol (UDP), 417

Variable pre-emphasis, 182–8

Varispeed, 190, 207, 234

VCA see Voltage controlled amplifier

Velocity bytes, 387, 388, 401–2

Velocity microphones, 436–8

Vertical Interval Timecode (VITC), 422

Video:

digital audio taping, 242–3

frame rates, 419–20

monitors, 95

synchronisers, 426–8

timecode, 419–20, 422, 423

Virtual Studio Technology (VST), 291

Visual clues, 38, 440–2

VITC see Vertical Interval Timecode

Vocals:

compressor/limiter, 362

de-esser, 370

level setting, 129–30

microphones, 41, 53

Voice, MIDI, 399–400, 404–8

Voltage, 11–13, 12, 14, 16

Voltage controlled amplifier (VCA), 106, 109, 140–5, 142, 147

Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), 246

Volume Unit (VU) meter, 135–7, 136, 172

VRML see Virtual reality modelling language

VST see Virtual Studio Technology

VU see Volume Unit

Watts, 14, 15

Wave field synthesis, 432

WAVE format, 267–8, 409

Waveforms, 11–14

Wavelength, 1, 3–4, 21–4, 68

Webers (Wb), 172

Weighted Root-Mean Square (WRMS), 538

Weighting curves, 16, 19

Weighting filters, 19

White noise, 7, 179–80, 216, 217

Williams curves, 437, 437, 459, 459, 504–5

Wireless networks, 321–2

Woodles, 162

Woofers, 83–4

Workstations, 276–8, 287–93

Wow, 246, 253, 537–8

Wrap, 174

Write-once-read-many (WORM), 258

XLR-type connectors, 96, 97–8, 253, 343, 350, 352, 357, 379

XMF (eXtensible Music Format), 409

Yagi aerial, 70–1, 71

Zenith alignment, 174

Zero level, 16

ZIPI, 417