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The Handbook of Global Science, Technology, and Innovation
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The Handbook of Global Science, Technology, and Innovation
by Andrea Filippetti, Daniele Archibugi
The Handbook of Global Science, Technology, and Innovation
Cover
Title page
Notes on Contributors
Introduction: Editors’ Introduction: Science, Technology, and Innovation Go Global
An Overview of the Book
Efforts and Ambitions
Acknowledgements
References
Part I: Global Trends
Chapter 1: The Convergence Paradox: The Global Evolution of National Innovation Systems
Introduction
Literature and Conceptual Framework
Data, Indicators and Descriptive Evidence
Empirical Analysis
Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: World Top University Rankings: From Distribution to Implications on National Knowledge Creation and Competitiveness
Introduction
Research and Innovations in Universities
International Comparison of Academic Research Output
Discussions and Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: The International Race of Top Supercomputers and Its Implications
Introduction
Measure of Supercomputer Capacity
World Distribution of Supercomputer Capacity
High-Tech Output and Supercomputing Capacity
A New Arms Race?
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Soft Innovation and Changes in Product Aesthetics: An Omitted Dimension in Economic Analyses of Innovation Activities
Introduction
Production of Innovations
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Macroeconomic Indicators of Soft Innovation
Microeconomic Indicators of Soft Innovation
Policy Issues
Conclusions and Implications
References
Chapter 5: Is the World of Science Moving to the East? What Bibliometrics Says
Investment in Research and Development
Leading Players in Science Publication
Leading Players in International Collaboration
Conclusions and Discussion
References
Part II: The Globalization of Technology and Innovation
Chapter 6: Innovation, Internationalization, and the Transnational Corporation
Introduction
Innovation and the Transnational Corporations
Transnationality and Innovation
International Trade and Innovation
From Micro to Aggregate Effects
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: International R&D Alliances by Firms: Origins and Development
Introduction
Defining Strategic Technology Partnering (STP)
Theoretical Perspectives to Explain Growth of STP
Relating STP to Internationalization
The Challenges of STP
Policy Issues Associated with STP
References
Chapter 8: The Globalization of Knowledge-Intensive Services
Introduction
Liberalization and International “Trade” in Services
“Barriers” to Internationalization of Services
Services Multinationals
The Role of Services in Globalization and the International Division of Labor
Knowledge Intensity
What Are Knowledge-Intensive Business Services?
Issues Affecting the Internationalization of KIBS
Outsourcing and Offshoring of KIBS
Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Capital and Technology Flows: Changing Technology Acquisition Strategies in Developing Countries
Traditional Modes of Technology Acquisition in Developing Countries
Limitations of Technology Acquisition Through Licensing and FDI
Changes in Modes of Technology Acquisition in the 1990s
Impact of Globalization on Technology Acquisition Strategies
Summary and Policy Implications
References
Chapter 10: Clusters and Global Innovation: The Role of Connectedness and Connectivity
Introduction
Global Connections: Connectedness and Connectivity
The Decision-Making Locus within Connections: Personal Relationships vs. Organizational Pipelines
The Network Structure of Connections: Centralized vs. Decentralized
Global Connectivity: Archetypes and Examples
The Decision-Making Locus within Connections and Innovation: Emergent vs. Strategic
The Network Structure of Connections and Innovation: Appropriation vs. Participation
Connectivity and Innovation: Breadth, Depth, and Spillovers
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 11: New Product Development in Emerging Economies: Innovation in Reverse from China
Introduction
Literature Review
Empirical Base
Discussion
Implications and Future Research
References
Chapter 12: Crowdfunding: Toward the Democratization of Innovation Financing
Introduction
What is Crowdfunding?
Crowdfunding Numbers at a Glance
The Advantages of Crowdfunding
The Early Evidence on Crowdfunding
Policy Implications
The Future of Crowdfunding
References
Part III: Spaces and Flows of Knowledge
Chapter 13: Harnessing the Geography of Innovation: Toward Evidence-Based Economic Development Policy
Introduction
Geography as a Platform to Organize Innovative Activity
Harnessing the Natural Tendency of Innovative Clustering
Evaluation Challenges for Economic Development Policies and Projects
A New Definition of Economic Development
Cluster Genesis
Reconsidering the Role of Government in Economic Development
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Multinational Enterprises Innovation Networks and the Role of Cities
Introduction
Classical MNE Theories: Hymer and Vernon on Organizational and Urban Structures
The New Context: A Fast-Changing World and the Evolving MNE
Innovation, Spillovers and Spatial Typologies
MNEs and Cities in the World
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 15: The Rise of the Global Creative Class
Introduction
Methodology, Data, and Variables
The Global Creative Class
Creativity and National Economic Performance
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Global Science Collaboration
Introduction: The Organization of Science Collaboration
How Researchers Connect Given a Set of Potential Partners at Various Distances
Explanatory Factors: Institutions, Network Dynamics and Attributes of Knowledge
Science Collaboration: Truly Global and Better?
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: International Mobility of Scientists
Introduction
Definitional Challenges
Conceptualising Mobility
The Context of Mobility: Drivers, Impacts and Barriers
Measuring Mobility
Levels of Scientific Mobility
Push and Pull Factors
Impacts of Mobility
The Construction of Mobility as a Policy Issue
Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: The Role of Global Connectedness in the Development of Indigenous Science in Middle-Income Countries
Introduction
Understanding Global Connectedness in Science
International Knowledge Flows and South African Science
The Role of Foreign PhDs in the South African Science System
Discussion
References
Chapter 19: Global Trends in Brain Drain and Likely Scenario in the Coming Years
Introduction
Brain Drain: Migration Patterns of the Highly Educated
Recent Trends
Austerity and Brain Drain in the EU
Conclusions
References
Part IV: Global Institutions and Intellectual Property Rights
Chapter 20: The Globalization of Intellectual Property Rights
Introduction
What Are Intellectual Property Rights?
The Rise of a Global IPR Regime
Two Models on IPRs
A Different View: How Powerful Are IPRs?
Is a Global IPR Regime Possible?
What Is the Future of IPRs in a Global Economy?
References
Chapter 21: Patents, Monopoly Power, and the Pricing of Pharmaceuticals in Low-Income Nations
Introduction
Pricing New Drugs Under Monopoly Conditions
The Extent of Differential Pricing
Reasons for the Paucity of Differential Pricing
The Ultimate Triumph of Differential Pricing
Compulsory Patent Licensing
Consequences for Research and Development
References
Chapter 22: Global Governance and Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Information Society: At the Crossroads of IPRs and Innovation
Introduction
Global Governance and the Excesses of Globalization: Preliminary Considerations
Definitional Issues: Information Society, Culture, and Social Involvement
Development of the Information Society
IPRs and Intangible Cultural Heritage: Options for Protection and the Commodification of Intangible Cultural Property
Tort of Cultural Misappropriation in the Context of the Information Society
The Information Society Conundrum and the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage
Concluding Remarks
References
Part V: The Global Governance of Science and Technology
Chapter 23: Knowledge as Global Public Good
Introduction
What Is a Public Good?
Is Knowledge a Public Good?
Governments in the Generation and Distribution of Knowledge
Intellectual Property Rights as a Tool for Exclusion
Knowledge as a Global Public Good
Vaccine Research as a Case of a Global Public Good Management
The Governance of Knowledge as Global Public Good
References
Chapter 24: From Governmental Open Data Toward Governmental Open Innovation (GOI): A Global Perspective
Introduction
Governmental Open Innovation: “Openness” of Governments for Innovation
The Emergence of Governmental Open Innovation: A Global Perspective
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 25: Serendipity and Chance in Scientific Discovery: Policy Implications for Global Society
Introduction
Serendipity and Chance
Implications of Serendipity and Chance for the Individual Researcher
Policy Implications of Serendipity and Chance
The Effects of Globalization on Research
Conclusions
References
Chapter 26: Global Climate Change and the Direction of Technological Change
Introduction
The Oncoming Storm
Getting Away from the Mouth of Hell
Reflections on the Technologies Discussed
The Role of Less Developed Countries in Carbon Reduction
Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Global Risks: Cause and Consequence of the New Interactions Between Science, Technology, and Society
Introduction: The “Anthropogenicity” of Global Social-Environmental Risks
Ulrich Beck’s and Mary Douglas’s Understanding of Risks: A Critical Review
Redefining Risks from an Epistemological Point of View
Consequences of the Definition of Risk for Understanding the New Interactions Between Science, Technology, and Society
Redefining Risks and Risk Society: Political Challenges of Risk Management
References
Chapter 28: Globalization, Regionalization, and Technological Change
Introduction
The “First Globalization” of the Nineteenth Century, and the Emergence of National Economies
Global Liberalization and Regional Integration Today
Regional Production
Regional Economic Integration: Europe, China, and Others
Will It Be Different This Time?
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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The Handbook of Global Science, Technology, and Innovation
CONTENTS
Cover
Title page
Notes on Contributors
Introduction: Editors’ Introduction: Science, Technology, and Innovation Go Global
An Overview of the Book
Efforts and Ambitions
Acknowledgements
References
Part I: Global Trends
Chapter 1: The Convergence Paradox: The Global Evolution of National Innovation Systems
Introduction
Literature and Conceptual Framework
Data, Indicators and Descriptive Evidence
Empirical Analysis
Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: World Top University Rankings: From Distribution to Implications on National Knowledge Creation and Competitiveness
Introduction
Research and Innovations in Universities
International Comparison of Academic Research Output
Discussions and Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: The International Race of Top Supercomputers and Its Implications
Introduction
Measure of Supercomputer Capacity
World Distribution of Supercomputer Capacity
High-Tech Output and Supercomputing Capacity
A New Arms Race?
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Soft Innovation and Changes in Product Aesthetics: An Omitted Dimension in Economic Analyses of Innovation Activities
Introduction
Production of Innovations
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Macroeconomic Indicators of Soft Innovation
Microeconomic Indicators of Soft Innovation
Policy Issues
Conclusions and Implications
References
Chapter 5: Is the World of Science Moving to the East? What Bibliometrics Says
Investment in Research and Development
Leading Players in Science Publication
Leading Players in International Collaboration
Conclusions and Discussion
References
Part II: The Globalization of Technology and Innovation
Chapter 6: Innovation, Internationalization, and the Transnational Corporation
Introduction
Innovation and the Transnational Corporations
Transnationality and Innovation
International Trade and Innovation
From Micro to Aggregate Effects
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: International R&D Alliances by Firms: Origins and Development
Introduction
Defining Strategic Technology Partnering (STP)
Theoretical Perspectives to Explain Growth of STP
Relating STP to Internationalization
The Challenges of STP
Policy Issues Associated with STP
References
Chapter 8: The Globalization of Knowledge-Intensive Services
Introduction
Liberalization and International “Trade” in Services
“Barriers” to Internationalization of Services
Services Multinationals
The Role of Services in Globalization and the International Division of Labor
Knowledge Intensity
What Are Knowledge-Intensive Business Services?
Issues Affecting the Internationalization of KIBS
Outsourcing and Offshoring of KIBS
Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Capital and Technology Flows: Changing Technology Acquisition Strategies in Developing Countries
Traditional Modes of Technology Acquisition in Developing Countries
Limitations of Technology Acquisition Through Licensing and FDI
Changes in Modes of Technology Acquisition in the 1990s
Impact of Globalization on Technology Acquisition Strategies
Summary and Policy Implications
References
Chapter 10: Clusters and Global Innovation: The Role of Connectedness and Connectivity
Introduction
Global Connections: Connectedness and Connectivity
The Decision-Making Locus within Connections: Personal Relationships vs. Organizational Pipelines
The Network Structure of Connections: Centralized vs. Decentralized
Global Connectivity: Archetypes and Examples
The Decision-Making Locus within Connections and Innovation: Emergent vs. Strategic
The Network Structure of Connections and Innovation: Appropriation vs. Participation
Connectivity and Innovation: Breadth, Depth, and Spillovers
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 11: New Product Development in Emerging Economies: Innovation in Reverse from China
Introduction
Literature Review
Empirical Base
Discussion
Implications and Future Research
References
Chapter 12: Crowdfunding: Toward the Democratization of Innovation Financing
Introduction
What is Crowdfunding?
Crowdfunding Numbers at a Glance
The Advantages of Crowdfunding
The Early Evidence on Crowdfunding
Policy Implications
The Future of Crowdfunding
References
Part III: Spaces and Flows of Knowledge
Chapter 13: Harnessing the Geography of Innovation: Toward Evidence-Based Economic Development Policy
Introduction
Geography as a Platform to Organize Innovative Activity
Harnessing the Natural Tendency of Innovative Clustering
Evaluation Challenges for Economic Development Policies and Projects
A New Definition of Economic Development
Cluster Genesis
Reconsidering the Role of Government in Economic Development
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Multinational Enterprises Innovation Networks and the Role of Cities
Introduction
Classical MNE Theories: Hymer and Vernon on Organizational and Urban Structures
The New Context: A Fast-Changing World and the Evolving MNE
Innovation, Spillovers and Spatial Typologies
MNEs and Cities in the World
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 15: The Rise of the Global Creative Class
Introduction
Methodology, Data, and Variables
The Global Creative Class
Creativity and National Economic Performance
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Global Science Collaboration
Introduction: The Organization of Science Collaboration
How Researchers Connect Given a Set of Potential Partners at Various Distances
Explanatory Factors: Institutions, Network Dynamics and Attributes of Knowledge
Science Collaboration: Truly Global and Better?
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: International Mobility of Scientists
Introduction
Definitional Challenges
Conceptualising Mobility
The Context of Mobility: Drivers, Impacts and Barriers
Measuring Mobility
Levels of Scientific Mobility
Push and Pull Factors
Impacts of Mobility
The Construction of Mobility as a Policy Issue
Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: The Role of Global Connectedness in the Development of Indigenous Science in Middle-Income Countries
Introduction
Understanding Global Connectedness in Science
International Knowledge Flows and South African Science
The Role of Foreign PhDs in the South African Science System
Discussion
References
Chapter 19: Global Trends in Brain Drain and Likely Scenario in the Coming Years
Introduction
Brain Drain: Migration Patterns of the Highly Educated
Recent Trends
Austerity and Brain Drain in the EU
Conclusions
References
Part IV: Global Institutions and Intellectual Property Rights
Chapter 20: The Globalization of Intellectual Property Rights
Introduction
What Are Intellectual Property Rights?
The Rise of a Global IPR Regime
Two Models on IPRs
A Different View: How Powerful Are IPRs?
Is a Global IPR Regime Possible?
What Is the Future of IPRs in a Global Economy?
References
Chapter 21: Patents, Monopoly Power, and the Pricing of Pharmaceuticals in Low-Income Nations
Introduction
Pricing New Drugs Under Monopoly Conditions
The Extent of Differential Pricing
Reasons for the Paucity of Differential Pricing
The Ultimate Triumph of Differential Pricing
Compulsory Patent Licensing
Consequences for Research and Development
References
Chapter 22: Global Governance and Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Information Society: At the Crossroads of IPRs and Innovation
Introduction
Global Governance and the Excesses of Globalization: Preliminary Considerations
Definitional Issues: Information Society, Culture, and Social Involvement
Development of the Information Society
IPRs and Intangible Cultural Heritage: Options for Protection and the Commodification of Intangible Cultural Property
Tort of Cultural Misappropriation in the Context of the Information Society
The Information Society Conundrum and the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage
Concluding Remarks
References
Part V: The Global Governance of Science and Technology
Chapter 23: Knowledge as Global Public Good
Introduction
What Is a Public Good?
Is Knowledge a Public Good?
Governments in the Generation and Distribution of Knowledge
Intellectual Property Rights as a Tool for Exclusion
Knowledge as a Global Public Good
Vaccine Research as a Case of a Global Public Good Management
The Governance of Knowledge as Global Public Good
References
Chapter 24: From Governmental Open Data Toward Governmental Open Innovation (GOI): A Global Perspective
Introduction
Governmental Open Innovation: “Openness” of Governments for Innovation
The Emergence of Governmental Open Innovation: A Global Perspective
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 25: Serendipity and Chance in Scientific Discovery: Policy Implications for Global Society
Introduction
Serendipity and Chance
Implications of Serendipity and Chance for the Individual Researcher
Policy Implications of Serendipity and Chance
The Effects of Globalization on Research
Conclusions
References
Chapter 26: Global Climate Change and the Direction of Technological Change
Introduction
The Oncoming Storm
Getting Away from the Mouth of Hell
Reflections on the Technologies Discussed
The Role of Less Developed Countries in Carbon Reduction
Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Global Risks: Cause and Consequence of the New Interactions Between Science, Technology, and Society
Introduction: The “Anthropogenicity” of Global Social-Environmental Risks
Ulrich Beck’s and Mary Douglas’s Understanding of Risks: A Critical Review
Redefining Risks from an Epistemological Point of View
Consequences of the Definition of Risk for Understanding the New Interactions Between Science, Technology, and Society
Redefining Risks and Risk Society: Political Challenges of Risk Management
References
Chapter 28: Globalization, Regionalization, and Technological Change
Introduction
The “First Globalization” of the Nineteenth Century, and the Emergence of National Economies
Global Liberalization and Regional Integration Today
Regional Production
Regional Economic Integration: Europe, China, and Others
Will It Be Different This Time?
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1 Countries with similar GDP per capita by group.
Table 1.2 Summary of convergence analysis.
Table 1.3a Results of convergence analysis: techno-economic system (I).
Table 1.3b Results of convergence analysis: techno-economic system (II).
Table 1.3c Results of convergence analysis: socio-institutional system (I).
Table 1.3d Results of convergence analysis: socio-institutional system (II).
Chapter 02
Table 2.1 Some major world university rankings.
Table 2.2 Top 10 university rankings.
Table 2.3 Top 10 country rankings in terms of aggregate scores.
Table 2.4 Top 10 country rankings in terms of aggregate scores (without Nobel prizes and Fields medals).
Table 2.5 Top 10 country rankings in top-quality science and engineering research performance.
Table 2.6 Top 10 country rankings in terms of aggregate scores deflated by population.
Table 2.7 Top 10 country rankings in terms of aggregate scores deflated by GDP.
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 Share of TOP500 systems by countries 1993–2013.
Table 3.2 Share of TOP500 performance by countries 1993–2013.
Chapter 04
Table 4.1 R&D spending and IP applications worldwide 2002–2011.
Table 4.2 Design rights, shares of global applications (%).
Table 4.3 Leading applicants for design registration, OHIM, 2011.
Table 4.4 World production of feature films 2005–2009.
Chapter 05
Table 5.1 Publications indexed in the Web of Science 203–2012.
Table 5.2 Highly cited publications in the Essential Science Indicators 2003–2012.
Table 5.3 Overall impact in the Essential Science Indicators 2003–2012.
Table 5.4 Salton’s measure for bilateral collaboration amongst the eight countries 2003–2012.
Chapter 08
Table 8.1 Modes of international services trade.
Table 8.2 Key regulatory issues and modes of supply in selected services sectors.
Table 8.3 Knowledge-intensive services categories.
Chapter 09
Table 9.1 Royalty and license fees receipts and payments by country groups in US$ millions. Shares in global totals and average annual rates of growth 1999–2009.
Table 9.2 Licensing flows across industrial sectors (percentage of total number of agreements).
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Connectivity and global innovation.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 The shift in the international flow of innovation.
Table 11.2 Innovation stimuli from the Chinese market.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Number of platforms per country in 2013.
Table 12.2 Kickstarter’s successfully funded projects by category and amount raised.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Various forms of externalities.
Table 13.2 Economic growth and economic development.
Table 13.3 Key definitions.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Technological classification of spatial types.
Table 14.2 Top 25 cities ranked by number of large companies’ global HQs 2010.
Table 14.3 Top 25 emerging countries’ cities ranked by number of large companies’ global HQs and number of large foreign subsidiaries 2010.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 The creative class in global cities.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Characterization of the six epistemic communities 2004–2008.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Relative impact in scientific field (number of papers multiplied by number of citations).
Table 18.2 Average citations per paper.
Table 18.3 Definitions of NRF research ratings.
Table 18.4 Gatekeeping score and its composition, mean (s.d. of the mean).
Table 18.5 Ratings of researchers with foreign PhD and South African PhD, frequencies (row-percentages).
Table 18.6 Papers and number of (foreign, unique foreign) co-authors within the five year period prior to rating, mean (s.d. of the mean).
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Numbers (in 000s) and shares of highly educated migrants (aged 15+) 2010/11 and 2005/06.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Intellectual Property Rights.
Table 20.2 The four stages of a global IPR regime.
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Private and public goods.
Table 23.2 R&D by source of financing and performance, selected countries over selected years. GERD = Government Expenditure on Research and Development.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Free revealing in Governmental Open Innovation.
Table 24.2 Overview of Governmental Open Innovation across different countries.
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Rankings of current electrical energy technologies according to carbon neutral growth rates.
cintro
Table 0.1 Categories of globalization of scientific, technological, and innovative activities.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 National innovation system: a stylized framework.
Figure 1.2 Selected countries’ relative evolution to the world average 1980–2008.
Figure 1.3 The cross-country dynamics of innovation and technological capabilities: ratio of R&D expenditure to GDP.
Figure 1.4 The cross-country dynamics of openess: openess 2008 (Exports + Imports / GDP).
Figure 1.5 The cross-country dynamics of infrastructures: electric power consumption 2008.
Figure 1.6 The cross-country dynamics of education and human capital: primary enrollment ratio 2000.
Figure 1.7 The cross-country dynamics of political institutions: freedom of press 2000.
Figure 1.8 The cross-country dynamics of social cohesion: Corruption Perception Index 2008.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 Regional distribution of ARWU500 universities.
Figure 2.2 Number of ARWU500 universities by the four top countries.
Figure 2.3 Regional distribution of research performance scores 2003 and 2013.
Figure 2.4 Regional distribution of top-quality science and engineering research scores.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 The system distribution of TOP500 by segments.
Figure 3.2 The distribution of TOP500 in 1993 by continent.
Figure 3.3 Continental distribution of TOP500 in 2013.
Figure 3.4 World shares of high-tech exports (%).
Figure 3.5 World shares of high-tech manufacturing valued-added (%).
Figure 3.6 World shares of high-tech manufacturing valued-added and TOP500 system (%) 1993–2010.
Figure 3.7 World shares of high-tech manufacturing valued-added and TOP500 system (%) 1993–2010, excluding the US, China, and Japan.
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1a Public expenditure on R&D of countries in the first group 2001–2010 (US $ million, 2005 constant prices and PPPs).
Figure 5.1b Public expenditure on R&D of countries in the second group 2001–2010 (US $ million, 2005 constant prices and PPPs).
Figure 5.2 Public expenditure on R&D (as a percentage of GDP).
Figure 5.3a Number of researchers of countries in the first group 2001–2010.
Figure 5.3b Number of researchers of countries in the second group 2001–2010.
Figure 5.4 Full-time equivalent researchers per thousand employed 2001–2010.
Figure 5.5a Contributions to world publications 2003–2012.
Figure 5.5b Contributions to world publications 2003–2012 (excluding United States and China).
Figure 5.6a Highly cited publications of the eight countries in the Essential Science Indicators 2003–2012.
Figure 5.6b Highly cited publications of seven countries in the Essential Science Indicators 2003–2012.
Figure 5.7 Percentage share of highly cited versus Web of Science publications 2003–2012 (ratio of Essential Science Indicators to Web of Science publications).
Figure 5.8 Percentage share of Essential Science Indicators publications produced by the eight countries in corresponding fields 2003–2012.
Figure 5.9 Citations per paper of the eight countries in the Essential Science Indicators 2003–2012.
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 Worldwide equity and non-equity technology alliances 1980–2006.
Figure 7.2 Organizational modes of STP agreements and extent of inter-firm collaboration.
Figure 7.3 Percentage of non-equity agreements in industrial technology alliances by sectors 1980–2006.
Figure 7.4 Distance-to-market and how it affects STP.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 Offshored services by segment 2005 and 2010.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Growth in international royalty and licensing payments and receipts 1950–2009, in US$ millions.
Figure 9.2 Value of outward FDI from BRIC countries, in US$ billions.
Figure 9.3 Form of outward FDI from BRIC countries 2000–2008, in US$ billions: greenfield investment vs. mergers and acquisitions.
Figure 9.4 Value of arms-length technology purchases, BRIC vs. OECD transition countries 1999–2009, in US$ millions.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Centralized and decentralized connection networks.
Figure 10.2 Types and examples of connectivity.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Crowdfunding campaigns’ life-cycle.
Figure 12.2 Kickstarter total amount in US$ raised by category of project.
Figure 12.3 Kickstarter success rate (%) by category of project.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 The global creative class map.
Figure 15.2 Total academic score of world universities by metro.
Figure 15.3 Start-ups founded by global metro.
Figure 15.4 The global talent index map.
Figure 15.5 The global technology index map.
Figure 15.6 The global tolerance index map.
Figure 15.7 The global creativity index map.
Figure 15.8 Global creativity and economic output.
Figure 15.9 Global creativity and competitiveness.
Figure 15.10 Global creativity and entrepreneurship.
Figure 15.11 Global creativity and human development.
Figure 15.12 Global creativity and life satisfaction.
Figure 15.13 Global creativity and income inequality.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 World map of collaborations in bluetooth research (left panel) and log–log plots of the conditional probability of co-authorships between organizations and the distance between them (right panel). The empirical probability of having a co-authored paper is indicated by the black circle line. The rewired random version is shown in squares (the dotted lines represent ±2 standard deviations of the configurations). The triangle down indicates the empirical probability of co-authorships within the same country, while the triangle up indicates cross-country co-authorships.
Figure 16.2 World map of collaborations in image compression research (left panel) and log–log plots of the conditional probability of co-authorships between organizations and the distance between them (right panel). Analogous to Figure 16.1.
Figure 16.3 World map of collaborations in heart valves research (left panel) and log–log plots of the conditional probability of co-authorships between organizations and the distance between them (right panel). Analogous to Figure 16.1.
Figure 16.4 World map of collaborations in H5N1 (bird flu) research (left panel) and log–log plots of the conditional probability of co-authorships between organizations and the distance between them (right panel). Analogous to Figure 16.1.
Figure 16.5 World map of collaborations in tissue engineering (left panel) and log–log plots of the conditional probability of co-authorships between organizations and the distance between them (right panel). Analogous to Figure 16.1.
Figure 16.6 World map of collaborations in carbon nanotube research (left panel) and log–log plots of the conditional probability of co-authorships between organizations and the distance between them (right panel). Analogous to Figure 16.1.
Figure 16.7 The development of the collaboration patterns in tissue engineering research 1991–2013. The exponent of the collaboration probability as function of the distance between the collaborators is an indicator for the overall dependency of collaboration and distance. If the exponent is 0.0, the collaboration is independent from distance. The more negative the exponent is, the more dependent is collaboration on the distance. The solid line represents the median exponent value of 2000 configurations (i.e., simulations of the network), the dashed lines represent the 95%-confidence interval around the median. The bars indicate the number of nodes (=institutions) in the network (dark gray) and the number of edges (=collaboration acts) between the nodes (light gray). While the networks of the first years are too small for sound interpretations, it is safe to say that the distance gains in importance from 1999 until 2003 and then fluctuates around a stable state, that is, although the network size increases significantly, there is no change in the collaboration propensity patterns, with exponents around –0.75.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Proportion of researchers in the EU27 higher education sector with experience of at least one move to a new employer in another country by country of affiliation (left-hand columns) amongst all researchers with experience of international mobility, including non-job mobility. Proportion of all researchers in the EU27 higher education sector with experience of international mobility, including non-job mobility (right-hand columns). n = 2586.
Figure 17.2 Proportion of researchers in the EU27 research institute sector with experience of at least one move to a new employer in another country by country of affiliation (left-hand columns) amongst all researchers with experience of international mobility, including non-job mobility. Proportion of all researchers in the EU27 research institute sector with experience of international mobility, including non-job mobility (right-hand columns). n = 3285.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Co-author network among senior biology scientists accumulated from 2006 to 2010; main connected component including 278 researchers and 464 co-author ties. Each node is a rated South African biologist. Colour of nodes: A-rated in black (18), B-rated in grey (70), C-rated (162) and unsuccessful ratings (28) in white. Size of nodes increases with external weight. Edges are co-author ties. Edge width increases with the (summed) weight of the accumulated co-authorship links.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Share of highly educated migrants (15+) in the OECD by region of origin 2010/11.
Figure 19.2 Net migration flow of highly educated normalized by population 2010.
Figure 19.3 Emigration rate of the highly educated 2000 and 2010.
Figure 19.4 Quality of scientists 1996–2011.
Figure 19.5 Correlations between R&D expenditure and highly educated immigration (top panel) or emigration rates (bottom panel).
Figure 19.6 Reasons for moving to another EU country (top chart) or outside the EU (bottom chart).
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1a Price discrimination between markets of differing wealth. Wealthy nation A.
Figure 21.1b Price discrimination between markets of differing wealth. Low-income nation B.
Figure 21.2 Market segmentation within a national market.
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 The ontology of social risks and its cognitive basis.
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Selected regional trade agreements. Discontinuity and overlapping lines are due to differences between the two UNCTAD data sets used for the 1954–2006 and 1995–2012 series.
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