For full references see the Bibliography on pages 190 and 191
Introduction. The distinction between having, living, and leading a life (p. 8) is taken from Wollheim (1984), p. 1. The part of the diagram on page 9 concerning types of meaning and ways of meaning was taken from Honderich (1995), p. 936. The part on channels of meaning is based on Sebok’s classification that is reproduced in Eco (1976), p. 175. A fascinating discussion of our attitudes to color can be found in Deutcher (2010). The mystical qualities of the number 7 mentioned on page 11 are to be found in Booker (2004). The examples in the passage on analogies (p. 11) are drawn from Hofstadter (2007), p. 149. The metaphors for AIDS and cancer mentioned on page 12 are described in Sontag (1988). The table on page 15 takes its departure from Hoch (1979). In the diagram on page 16 I have again used Sebok’s classification that is reproduced in Eco (1976), p. 175.
Chapter One. This chapter builds on the ideas first advanced by Shannon and Weaver (1948; reprint 1998), Lasswell (1948), and Gerbner (1956). Saussure lists his examples of the key stages in Saussure (2003), pp. 15, 74, and 76. In describing the trajectories of communication, I have drawn from the ideas of Genber (1956), Shannon and Weaver (1949), and Lasswell (1948). Intention (pp. 35–36) uses Morris (1962). Noise (pp. 41–42) employs Sebok (1985).
Chapter Two. This chapter makes use of some helpful markers set down in Chandler (2002). Anyone who doubts the importance of literal instructions should consult Mijksenaar, and Westendorp (1999). The wrestling example is drawn from Barthes (1993). An excellent discussion of the problems of translation, which I have alluded to here, can be found in Hofstadter (1997).
Chapter Three. The Introduction (pp. 69–70) to this chapter employs the seminal work of Levi-Strauss in Levi-Strauss (1969). Subjectivity and Objectivity (pp. 77–78) uses some ideas exploited by Nagel (October, 1974). Sense and Reference (pp. 83–84) employs a distinction made in Donnellan (1966). Problem and Solution (pp. 87–88) makes use of Adams (2001).
Chapter Four. Many of the concepts used in this chapter have received excellent discussion in Arnheim (1974), Arnheim (1988), Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006), and Van Leeuwen (2005).
Chapter Five. In the Introduction (pp. 109–10), estimates of size of vocabulary for different segments of the human population can be found in Aitchison (2002), p. 7. Words and Images (pp. 113–14) employs distinctions from Barthes (1977). Functions (pp. 115–16) uses Jakobson (1969). Placing (pp. 119–20) utilizes an idea expressed in Lidwell, Holden, and Butler (2003). Voices (pp. 123–24) was inspired by Goddard (2002). Intertextuality and Intratextuality (pp. 125–26) and Paratext and Paralanguage (pp. 127–28) are motivated by Jackson (1999) and Adair (1992).
Chapter Six. The Introduction (pp. 129–30) uses Butler and Keeney (2001). Concepts and Conceptions (pp. 131–32) employs an idea by Putnam (1993) and this has its roots in Frege. His central ideas can be found in Beaney (1997). Connotation and Denotation (pp. 133–34) draws on Fiske (1990). Combinations and Substitutions (pp. 137–38) and Tokens and Types (pp. 139–40) make use of a discussion in Chandler (2002). Rule-following (pp. 141–42) is inspired by Wittgenstein (1953). Conventions (pp. 143–44) uses the seminal work of Gombrich (1986). Classifications (pp. 145–46) was aided by Bowker and Star (1999), and by some comments in de Duve (1996). Understanding and Misunderstanding (pp. 147–48) uses some information from Varasdi (1996).
Chapter Seven. Genres (pp. 153–54) and Styles (pp. 155–56) have been inspired by Van Leeuwen (2005). Ideologies (pp. 161–62) draws on Jaworski and Coupland (1999). Discourses (pp. 163–64) makes use of Fiske (1990).
Chapter Eight. Fact and Fiction (pp. 171–72) draws on Varasdi (1996). Legends (pp. 175–76) makes use of Dale (2005) and Harding (2005). Characters and Personas (pp. 177–78) employs Marquart (1998) and Lidwell, Holden, and Butler (2003). Mysteries (pp. 181–82) makes reference to Barnes (1995). Turning points (pp. 185–86) has an initial idea that I heard John Le Carré discuss in an interview at the National Film Theatre.