Quantitative Work Management: A Project and Work Management Process Area at Maturity Level 4
Purpose
The purpose of Quantitative Work Management (QWM) is to quantitatively manage the work to achieve the established quality and process performance objectives for the work.
Introductory Notes
The Quantitative Work Management process area involves the following activities:
• Establishing and maintaining the quality and process performance objectives for the work
• Composing a defined process for the work to help to achieve the quality and process performance objectives for the work
• Selecting subprocesses and attributes critical to understanding performance and that help to achieve the quality and process performance objectives for the work
• Selecting measures and analytic techniques to be used in quantitative management
• Monitoring the performance of selected subprocesses using statistical and other quantitative techniques
• Managing the work using statistical and other quantitative techniques to determine whether or not the objectives for quality and process performance for the work are being satisfied
• Performing root cause analysis of selected issues to address deficiencies in achieving the quality and process performance objectives
Organizational process assets used to achieve high maturity, including quality and process performance objectives, selected processes, measures, baselines, and models, are established using organizational process performance processes and used in quantitative work management processes. The work group can use organizational process performance processes to define additional objectives, measures, baselines, and models as needed to effectively analyze and manage performance. The measures, measurements, and other data resulting from quantitative work management processes are incorporated into the organizational process assets. In this way, the organization and its work groups derive benefit from assets improved through use.
The defined process for the work is a set of interrelated subprocesses that form an integrated and coherent process for work activities. The Integrated Work Management practices describe establishing the defined process for the work by selecting and tailoring processes from the organization’s set of standard processes. (See the definition of “defined process” in the glossary.)
Quantitative Work Management practices, unlike Integrated Work Management practices, help you to develop a quantitative understanding of the expected performance of processes or subprocesses. This understanding is used as a basis for establishing the defined process for the work by evaluating processes of subprocesses for the work and selecting the ones that will best achieve the quality and process performance objectives.
Establishing effective relationships with suppliers is also important to the successful implementation of this process area. Establishing effective relationships can involve establishing quality and process performance objectives for suppliers, determining the measures and analytic techniques to be used to gain insight into supplier progress and performance, and monitoring progress toward achieving those objectives.
An essential element of quantitative management is having confidence in predictions (i.e., the ability to accurately predict the extent to which the work group can fulfill its quality and process performance objectives for the work). Subprocesses to be managed through the use of statistical and other quantitative techniques are chosen based on the needs for predictable process performance.
Another essential element of quantitative management is understanding the nature and extent of the variation experienced in process performance and recognizing when actual work performance may not be adequate to achieve the quality and process performance objectives for the work.
Thus, quantitative management includes statistical thinking and the correct use of a variety of statistical techniques. (See the definition of “quantitative management” in the glossary.)
Statistical and other quantitative techniques are used to develop an understanding of the actual performance or to predict the performance of processes. Such techniques can be applied at multiple levels, from a focus on individual subprocesses to analyses that span lifecycle phases and support functions. Non-statistical techniques provide a less rigorous but still useful set of approaches that together with statistical techniques help the work group to understand whether or not quality and process performance objectives are being satisfied and to identify any needed corrective actions.
This process area applies to managing a project or set of work activities. Applying these concepts to managing other groups and functions can help to link different aspects of performance in the organization to provide a basis for balancing and reconciling competing priorities to address a broader set of business objectives.
Related Process Areas
Refer to the Capacity and Availability Management process area for more information about ensuring effective service system performance and ensuring that resources are provided and used effectively to support service requirements.
Refer to the Strategic Service Management process area for more information about establishing and maintaining standard services in concert with strategic needs and plans.
Refer to the Causal Analysis and Resolution process area for more information about identifying causes of selected outcomes and taking action to improve process performance.
Refer to the Integrated Work Management process area for more information about establishing the defined process for the work.
Refer to the Measurement and Analysis process area for more information about aligning measurement and analysis activities and providing measurement results.
Refer to the Organizational Process Definition process area for more information about establishing organizational process assets.
Refer to the Organizational Performance Management process area for more information about proactively managing the organization’s performance to meet its business objectives.
Refer to the Organizational Process Performance process area for more information about establishing and maintaining a quantitative understanding of the performance of selected processes in the organization’s set of standard processes in support of achieving quality and process performance objectives, and providing process performance data, baselines, and models to quantitatively manage the organization’s work.
Refer to the Supplier Agreement Management process area for more information about managing the acquisition of products and services from suppliers.
Refer to the Work Monitoring and Control process area for more information about providing an understanding of the ongoing work so that appropriate corrective actions can be taken when the performance deviates significantly from the plan.
Specific Practices by Goal
SG 1 Prepare for Quantitative Management
Preparation for quantitative management is conducted.
Preparation activities include establishing quantitative objectives for the work, composing a defined process for the work that can help to achieve those objectives, selecting subprocesses and attributes critical to understanding performance and achieving the objectives, and selecting measures and analytic techniques that support quantitative management.
These activities may need to be repeated when needs and priorities change, when there is an improved understanding of process performance, or as part of risk mitigation or corrective action.
SP 1.1 Establish the Work Objectives
Establish and maintain the quality and process performance objectives for the work.
When establishing the quality and process performance objectives for the work, think about the processes that will be included in the defined process for the work and what the historical data indicate regarding their process performance. These considerations, along with others such as technical capability, will help in establishing realistic objectives for the work.
The objectives for quality and process performance for the work are established and negotiated at an appropriate level of detail (e.g., for individual product components, subprocesses, work groups) to permit an overall evaluation of the objectives and risks at the work group level. As the work progresses, work objectives can be updated as the actual work performance becomes known and more predictable, and to reflect changing needs and priorities of relevant stakeholders.
Example Work Products
1. The quality and process performance objectives for the work
2. Assessment of the risk of not achieving the objectives for the work
Subpractices
1. Review the organization’s objectives for quality and process performance.
This review ensures that work group members understand the broader business context in which the work operates. The objectives for quality and process performance for the work are developed in the context of these overarching organizational objectives.
Refer to the Organizational Process Performance process area for more information about establishing quality and process performance objectives.
2. Identify the quality and process performance needs and priorities of the customer, suppliers, end users, and other relevant stakeholders.
Typically, the identification of relevant stakeholders’ needs will begin early (e.g., during development of the service strategy). Needs are further elicited, analyzed, refined, prioritized, and balanced during development of stakeholder and service system requirements.
3. Define and document measurable quality and process performance objectives for the work.
Defining and documenting objectives for the work involve the following:
• Incorporating appropriate organizational quality and process performance objectives
• Writing objectives that reflect the quality and process performance needs and priorities of the customer, end users, and other relevant stakeholders
• Determining how each objective will be achieved
• Reviewing the objectives to ensure they are sufficiently specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound
4. Derive interim objectives to monitor progress toward achieving the work objectives.
Interim objectives can be established for attributes of selected lifecycle phases, milestones, work products, and subprocesses.
Since process performance models characterize relationships among product and process attributes, these models can be used to help derive interim objectives that guide the work group toward achieving its objectives.
5. Determine the risk of not achieving the quality and process performance objectives for the work.
The risk is a function of the established objectives, the product architecture, the defined process for the work, availability of needed knowledge and skills, etc. Process performance baselines and models can be used to evaluate the likelihood of achieving a set of objectives and provide guidance in negotiating objectives and commitments. The assessment of risk can involve various stakeholders and can be conducted as part of the conflict resolution described in the next subpractice.
6. Resolve conflicts among the quality and process performance objectives (e.g., if one objective cannot be achieved without compromising another).
Process performance models can help to identify conflicts and help to ensure that the resolution of conflicts does not introduce new conflicts or risks.
Resolving conflicts involves the following activities:
• Setting relative priorities for objectives
• Considering alternative objectives in light of long-term business strategies as well as short-term needs
• Involving the customer, end users, senior management, work group management, and other relevant stakeholders in tradeoff decisions
• Revising objectives as necessary to reflect results of conflict resolution
7. Establish traceability to the quality and process performance objectives from their sources.
8. Define and negotiate quality and process performance objectives for suppliers.
9. Revise the quality and process performance objectives as necessary.
SP 1.2 Compose the Defined Process
Using statistical and other quantitative techniques, compose a defined process that enables the work to achieve its quality and process performance objectives.
Refer to the Integrated Work Management process area for more information about establishing the defined process.
Refer to the Organizational Process Definition process area for more information about establishing organizational process assets.
Refer to the Organizational Process Performance process area for more information about establishing performance baselines and models.
Composing the defined process for the work goes beyond the process selection and tailoring described in the Integrated Work Management process area. It involves identifying alternatives to one or more processes or subprocesses, performing quantitative analysis of performance and selecting the alternatives that are best able to help the project to achieve its quality and process performance objectives.
Example Work Products
1. Criteria used to evaluate alternatives for the work
2. Alternative subprocesses
3. Subprocesses to be included in the defined process
4. Assessment of risk of not achieving the objectives for the work
Subpractices
1. Establish the criteria to use in evaluating process alternatives for the work.
2. Identify alternative processes and subprocesses for the work.
Identifying alternatives can include one or more of the following:
• Analyzing organizational process performance baselines to identify candidate subprocesses that would help achieve the quality and process performance objectives of the work
• Identifying subprocesses from the organization’s set of standard processes as well as tailored processes in the process asset library that can help to achieve the objectives
• Identifying processes from external sources (e.g., such as other organizations, professional conferences, academic research)
• Adjusting the level or depth of intensity with which a subprocess is applied (as described in further detail in a subpractice that follows)
Adjusting the level or depth of intensity with which the subprocesses are applied can involve the following choices:
• Number and type of peer reviews to be held and when
• Amount of effort or calendar time devoted to particular tasks
• Number and selection of people involved
• Skill level requirements for performing specific tasks
• Selective application of specialized construction or verification techniques
• Reuse decisions and associated risk mitigation strategies
• The product and process attributes to be measured
• Sampling rate for management data
Refer to the Integrated Work Management process area for more information about using organizational process assets for planning work activities.
3. Analyze the interaction of alternative subprocesses to understand relationships among the subprocesses, including their attributes.
An analysis of the interaction will provide insight into the relative strengths and weaknesses of particular alternatives. This analysis can be supported by a calibration of the organization’s process performance models with process performance data (e.g., as characterized in process performance baselines).
Additional modeling may be needed if existing process performance models cannot address significant relationships among the alternative subprocesses under consideration and there is high risk of not achieving objectives.
4. Evaluate alternative subprocesses against the criteria.
Use historical data, process performance baselines, and process performance models as appropriate to assist in evaluating alternatives against the criteria. These evaluations can include use of a sensitivity analysis particularly in high risk situations.
Refer to the Decision Analysis and Resolution process area for more information about evaluating alternatives.
5. Select the alternative subprocesses that best meet the criteria.
It may be necessary to iterate through the activities described in the previous subpractices several times before confidence is achieved that the best available alternatives have been identified.
6. Evaluate the risk of not achieving the quality and process performance objectives for the work.
An analysis of risk associated with the selected alternative defined process can lead to identifying new alternatives to be evaluated, as well as areas requiring more management attention.
Refer to the Risk Management process area for more information about identifying and analyzing risks.
SP 1.3 Select Subprocesses and Attributes
Select subprocesses and attributes critical to evaluating performance and that help to achieve the quality and process performance objectives for the work.
Some subprocesses are critical because their performance significantly influences or contributes to achieving the objectives for the work. These subprocesses may be good candidates for monitoring and control using statistical and other quantitative techniques as described in the first specific practice of the second specific goal.
Also, some attributes of these subprocesses can serve as leading indicators of the process performance to expect of subprocesses that are further downstream and can be used to assess the risk of not achieving the objectives for the work (e.g., by using process performance models).
Subprocesses and attributes that play such critical roles may have already been identified as part of the analyses described in the previous specific practice.
For small projects, and circumstances in which subprocess data may not be generated frequently enough in a work activity to support a sufficiently sensitive statistical inference, it may still be possible to understand performance by examining process performance across similar iterations, teams, or work activities.
Example Work Products
1. Criteria used to select subprocesses that are key contributors to achieving the objectives for the work
2. Selected subprocesses
3. Attributes of selected subprocesses that help in predicting future work performance
Subpractices
1. Analyze how subprocesses, their attributes, other factors, and performance results of the work relate to each other.
A root cause analysis, sensitivity analysis, or process performance model can help to identify the subprocesses and attributes that most contribute to achieving particular performance results (and variation in performance results) or that are useful indicators of future achievement of performance results.
Refer to the Causal Analysis and Resolution process area for more information about determining causes of selected outcomes.
2. Identify criteria to be used in selecting subprocesses that are key contributors to achieving the quality and process performance objectives for the work.
3. Select subprocesses using the identified criteria.
Historical data, process performance models, and process performance baselines can help in evaluating candidate subprocesses against selection criteria.
Refer to the Decision Analysis and Resolution process area for more information about evaluating alternatives.
4. Identify product and process attributes to be monitored.
These attributes may have been identified as part of performing the previous subpractices.
Attributes that provide insight into current or future subprocess performance are candidates for monitoring, whether or not the associated subprocesses are under the control of the work group. Also, some of these same attributes may serve other roles, (e.g., to help in monitoring progress and performance of the work as described in Work Monitoring and Control [WMC]).
SP 1.4 Select Measures and Analytic Techniques
Select measures and analytic techniques to be used in quantitative management.
Refer to the Measurement and Analysis process area for more information about aligning measurement and analysis activities and providing measurement results.
Example Work Products
1. Definitions of measures and analytic techniques to be used in quantitative management
2. Traceability of measures back to the quality and process performance objectives
3. Quality and process performance objectives for selected subprocesses and their attributes
4. Process performance baselines and models for use by the work group
Subpractices
1. Identify common measures from the organizational process assets that support quantitative management.
Refer to the Organizational Process Definition process area for more information about establishing organizational process assets.
Refer to the Organizational Process Performance process area for more information about establishing performance baselines and models.
Product lines, standard services, and service levels or other stratification criteria can categorize common measures.
2. Identify additional measures that may be needed to cover critical product and process attributes of the selected subprocesses.
In some cases, measures can be research oriented. Such measures should be explicitly identified.
3. Identify the measures to be used in managing subprocesses.
When selecting measures, keep the following considerations in mind:
• Measures that aggregate data from multiple sources (e.g., different processes, input sources, environments) or over time (e.g., at a phase level) can mask underlying problems, making problem identification and resolution difficult.
• For short-term work, it may be necessary to aggregate data across similar instances of a process to enable analysis of its process performance while continuing to use the unaggregated data in support of individual work activities.
• Selection should not be limited to service level or performance measures only. “Analysis measures” (e.g., transaction arrival rates, staff member skill levels, trends in the use of particular service system resources) may provide better insight into process performance.
4. Specify the operational definitions of measures, their collection points in subprocesses, and how the integrity of measures will be determined.
5. Analyze the relationship of identified measures to the quality and process performance objectives for the work and derive subprocess quality and process performance objectives that state targets (e.g., thresholds, ranges) to be met for each measured attribute of each selected subprocess.
6. Identify the statistical and other quantitative techniques to be used in quantitative management.
In quantitative management, the process performance of selected subprocesses is analyzed using statistical and other quantitative techniques that help to characterize subprocess variation, identify when statistically unexpected behavior occurs, recognize when variation is excessive, and investigate why. Examples of statistical techniques that can be used in the analysis of process performance include statistical process control charts, regression analysis, analysis of variance, and time series analysis.
The work can benefit from analyzing the performance of subprocesses not selected for their impact on work performance. Statistical and other quantitative techniques can be identified to address these subprocesses as well.
Statistical and other quantitative techniques sometimes involve the use of graphical displays that help visualize associations among the data and results of analyses. Such graphical displays can help visualize process performance and variation over time (i.e., trends), identify problems or opportunities, and evaluate the effects of particular factors.
7. Determine what process performance baselines and models may be needed to support identified analyses.
In some situations, the set of baselines and models provided as described in Organizational Process Performance may be inadequate to support quantitative work management. This situation can happen when the objectives, processes, stakeholders, skill levels, or environment for the work are different from other projects for which baselines and models were established.
As the work progresses, data from the work can serve as a more representative data set for establishing missing or a work-specific set of process performance baselines and models.
Hypothesis testing comparing work data to prior historical data can confirm the need to establish additional baselines and models specific to the work.
8. Instrument the organizational or work support environment to support collection, derivation, and analysis of measures.
This instrumentation is based on the following:
• Description of the organization’s set of standard processes
• Description of the defined process for the work
• Capabilities of the organizational or work support environment
9. Revise measures and statistical analysis techniques as necessary.
SG 2 Quantitatively Manage the Work
The work is quantitatively managed.
Quantitatively managing the work involves the use of statistical and other quantitative techniques to do the following:
• Monitor the selected subprocesses using statistical and other quantitative techniques
• Determine whether or not the quality and process performance objectives for the work are being satisfied
• Perform root cause analysis of selected issues to address deficiencies
SP 2.1 Monitor the Performance of Selected Subprocesses
Monitor the performance of selected subprocesses using statistical and other quantitative techniques.
The intent of this specific practice is to use statistical and other quantitative techniques to analyze variation in subprocess performance and to determine actions necessary to achieve each subprocess’s quality and process performance objectives.
Example Work Products
1. Natural bounds of process performance for each selected subprocess attribute
2. The actions needed to address deficiencies in the process stability or capability of each selected subprocess
Subpractices
1. Collect data, as defined by the selected measures, on the subprocesses as they execute.
2. Monitor the variation and stability of the selected subprocesses and address deficiencies.
This analysis involves evaluating measurements in relation to the natural bounds calculated for each selected measure and identifying outliers or other signals of potential non-random behavior, determining their causes and preventing or mitigating the effects of their recurrence (i.e., addressing special causes of variation).
During such analysis, be sensitive to the sufficiency of the data and to shifts in process performance that can affect the ability to achieve or maintain process stability.
Analytic techniques for identifying outliers or signals include statistical process control charts, prediction intervals, and analysis of variance. Some of these techniques involve graphical displays.
Other deficiencies in process performance to consider include when variation is too large to have confidence that the subprocess is stable, or too great to assess its capability (next subpractice) of achieving the objectives established for each selected attribute.
3. Monitor the capability and performance of the selected subprocesses and address deficiencies.
The intent of this subpractice is to identify what actions to take to help the subprocess achieve its quality and process performance objectives. Be sure that the subprocess performance is stable relative to the selected measures (previous subpractice) before comparing its capability to its quality and process performance objectives.
Some actions can involve the use of root cause analysis, which is further described in SP 2.3.
Refer to the Work Monitoring and Control process area for more information about managing corrective action to closure.
SP 2.2 Manage Work Performance
Manage the work using statistical and other quantitative techniques to determine whether or not the quality and process performance objectives for the work will be satisfied.
Refer to the Measurement and Analysis process area for more information about aligning measurement and analysis activities and providing measurement results.
Refer to the Organizational Performance Management process area for more information about managing business performance.
This specific practice uses multiple inputs to predict if the quality and process performance objectives for the work will be satisfied. Based on this prediction, risks associated with not meeting the quality and process performance objectives are identified and managed, and actions to address deficiencies are defined as appropriate.
Key inputs to this analysis include the individual subprocess stability and capability data derived from the previous specific practice, as well as performance data from monitoring other subprocesses, risks, and suppliers’ progress.
Example Work Products
1. Predictions of results to be achieved relative to the quality and process performance objectives of the work
2. Graphical displays and data tabulations for other subprocesses, which support quantitative management
3. Assessment of risks of not achieving the quality and process performance objectives of the work
4. Actions needed to address deficiencies in achieving work objectives
Subpractices
1. Periodically review the performance of subprocesses.
Stability and capability data from monitoring selected subprocesses, as described in SP2.1, are a key input into understanding the work group’s overall ability to meet quality and process performance objectives.
In addition, subprocesses not selected for their impact on work objectives can still create problems or risks for the work and thus some level of monitoring for these subprocesses may be desired as well. Analytic techniques involving the use of graphical displays can also prove to be useful to understanding subprocess performance.
2. Monitor and analyze suppliers’ progress toward achieving their quality and process performance objectives.
3. Periodically review and analyze actual results achieved against established interim objectives.
4. Use process performance models calibrated with project data to assess progress toward achieving the quality and process performance objectives of the work.
Process performance models are used to assess progress toward achieving objectives that cannot be measured until a future phase in the work lifecycle. Objectives can either be interim objectives or overall objectives.
Calibration of process performance models is based on the results obtained from performing the activities described in the previous subpractices and specific practices.
5. Identify and manage risks associated with achieving the quality and process performance objectives of the work.
Refer to the Risk Management process area for more information about identifying and analyzing risks and mitigating risks.
6. Determine and implement actions needed to address deficiencies in achieving the quality and process performance objectives of the work.
The intent of this subpractice is to identify and implement the right set of actions, resources, and schedule to place the work group back on a path toward achieving its objectives.
Some actions can involve the use of root cause analysis, which is addressed in the next specific practice.
Refer to the Work Monitoring and Control process area for more information about managing corrective action to closure.
When corrective actions result in changes to attributes or measures related to adjustable factors in a process performance model, the model can be used to predict the effects of the actions. When undertaking critical corrective actions in high risk situations, a process performance model can be created to predict the effects of the change.
SP 2.3 Perform Root Cause Analysis
Perform root cause analysis of selected issues to address deficiencies in achieving the work group’s quality and process performance objectives.
Issues to address include deficiencies in subprocess stability and capability, and deficiencies in performance relative to its objectives.
Root cause analysis of selected issues is best performed shortly after the problem is first identified, while the event is still recent enough to be carefully investigated.
The formality of and effort required for a root cause analysis can vary greatly and can be determined by such factors as the stakeholders who are involved; the risk or opportunity that is present; the complexity of the situation; the frequency with which the situation could recur; the availability of data, baselines, and models that can be used in the analysis; and how much time has passed since the events triggering the deficiency.
In the case of a subprocess that exhibits too much variation, is performed rarely, and involves different stakeholders, it could take weeks or months to identify root causes.
Likewise, the actions to take can range significantly in terms of effort and time needed to determine, plan, and implement them.
It is often difficult to know how much time is needed unless an initial analysis of the deficiencies is undertaken.
Refer to the Causal Analysis and Resolution process area for more information about identifying causes of selected outcomes and taking action to improve process performance.
Refer to the Measurement and Analysis process area for more information about aligning measurement and analysis activities and providing measurement results.
Example Work Products
1. Subprocess and performance measurements and analyses (including statistical analyses) recorded in the organization’s measurement repository
2. Graphical displays of data used to understand subprocess and performance and performance trends
3. Identified root causes and potential actions to take
Subpractices
1. Perform root cause analysis, as appropriate, to diagnose process performance deficiencies.
Process performance baselines and models are used in diagnosing deficiencies; identifying possible solutions; predicting future work and process performance; and evaluating potential actions as appropriate.
The use of process performance models in predicting future work and process performance is described in a subpractice of the previous specific practice.
2. Identify and analyze potential actions.
3. Implement selected actions.
4. Assess the impact of the actions on subprocess performance.
This assessment of impact can include an evaluation of the statistical significance of the impacts resulting from the actions taken to improve process performance.