Index
Absorption, of toxicants, 36–39
Acceptable risk, 12–14
Accident pyramid, 11
Accident(s) (see also Release(s); Toxic release)
case histories, 23–29, 535–556
consequence modeling procedure, 109, 110
definition, 21
fatal accident rate (FAR), for selected industries, 8
investigations, 515–532
OSHA definitions, 5–8
prevention, inherent safety and, 20–23
probit parameters for, 51
process incidents, selection criteria for, 160
process, nature of, 15–20
recreational, 9
source models, 109–159
statistics, 4–12
steps of, 18–19
types of, 15–18
worst-case scenario, 159, 160, 194, 364–365
Accumulation, 356–357
Acetal, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Acetaldehyde
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Acetic acid
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Acetone
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
boiling point, 440
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Acetylene
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists), 54–59, 200, 203
Acids, flash point estimation, 231
Acrolein
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 567
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
respiratory toxicity, 38
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Acrylic acid
ERPG values, 201
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Acrylonitrile
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
respiratory toxicity, 38
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Acrylyl chloride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Acute toxicity, 41
Additives, static electricity prevention and, 336
Adiabatic compression, 249–251
Adiabatic flow, 136–143
Adiabatic temperature increase, 250
Adipinic acid, St classes and combustion data, 261
AICHE (American Institute of Chemical Engineers), 6
AIHA (American Industrial Hygiene Association), 200
Air
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
Air compressors, 249
Air flow, in hoods, 99–101
Air temperature, 175
AIT (autoignition temperature), 227, 249, 566–569
Aldehydes, flash point estimation, 231
Allyl alcohol, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Allylamine, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Allyl bromide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Allyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Aluminum oxide, EEGL values, 204
Aluminum powders, St classes and combustion data, 262
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 54–59, 200, 203
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), 200
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AICHE), 6
Amines, flash point estimation, 231
Ammonia
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
combustible characteristic constant, 407
density, 154
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 568
ERPG values, 201
flash point, 568
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
heat of combustion, 568
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
probit correlation for exposure, 51
saturation vapor pressure, 154
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Ammonium hydroxide, respiratory toxicity, 38
Amyl acetate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Amyl alcohol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Amyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Analyzers, 531–532
Aniline
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
boiling point, 455
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Argon, heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
Arsenous trichloride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Arsine
EEGL values, 204
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Arson, 16
Asbestos, respiratory toxicity, 39
Atmospheric stability, 172, 175, 187
Attenuation and limitation, in inherent safety, 21–23
Audits, in process safety management (PSM), 71
Autoignition temperature (AIT), 227, 249, 566–569
Auto-oxidation, 249
Backpressure, 357
Backpressure correction factor (Kb), 388–389, 391, 392
Baker, Q. A., 274
Baker, W. E., 268
Balanced-bellows reliefs, 361–362
Balance of electrostatic charges, 324–330
Ball valves, 125
Barrow, G. M., 90
Bartknecht, W., 260, 263, 264, 265
Beaulieu, P. A., 260
Benzene
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
description and potential hazard, 78
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 566
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 566
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
specific gravity, 115
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Benzyl chloride, ERPG values, 201
Bhopal, India, 25–26
Biphenyl, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Blast damage, 265–269
estimates for structures, 267
TNT equivalency method, 269–270
Blast pressure, 265
Block valves, 529–530
Blood tests and toxicant concentrations, 36, 37, 40
Blowdown, 357
Blowout panels, 404–406
Boicourt, G. W., 537
Boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosion (see BLEVE)
Boiling, liquid pools, model of, 157–158
Bonding and grounding, 332–335
Borgoyne, J. H., 252
Boron trichloride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Boron trifluoride/methyl ether, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Boron trifluoride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Boschung, P., 311
Boyle, W. J., Jr., 402
Britter-McQuaid model, 195–199
Britton, L. G., 313
Brode, H. L., 276
Brode’s equation, 276–277, 278
Bromine
boiling point, 440
ERPG values, 201
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
respiratory toxicity, 38
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Bromotrifluoromethane, EEGL values, 204
Bronze powders, St classes and combustion data, 262
Brush discharge, 309, 311, 331–332
Burson, J. L., 49
Butadienes, 546–547
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
ERPG values, 201
flash point, 440
as hazardous peroxide, 544
heat of combustion, 440
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Butane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Butanol (see Butyl alcohol)
Butenes
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash points, 566
heat of combustion, 566
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Butyl acetate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Butyl acrylate, ERPG values, 201
Butyl alcohol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Butyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Butyl isocyanate, ERPG values, 201
Calcium carbide
boiling point, 440
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
Calorimeters, 366
Capacitance and capacitors, electrostatic, 316–324
Caprolactam, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Carbon dioxide
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Carbon disulfide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 568
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Carbon, materials strength, 525
Carbon monoxide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
boiling point, 440
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 568
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
probit correlation for exposure, 51
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Carbon oxysulfide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Carbon tetrachloride
ERPG values, 201
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
Carcinogen, definition, 40
Case histories
Bhopal, India, 25–26
butadiene explosions, 546–547
centrifuge, explosion in, 536–537
chemical reactivity, 540–546
definitions for, 21
duct system, explosion in, 537
ethylene oxide explosion, 546, 548–549
Flixborough, England, 23–25
fuel-blending tank explosion, 555
hydrocarbon explosion, 547
leak testing a vessel, 552
nitrobenzene sulfonic acid decomposition, 540–541
organic oxidation, 541
Pasadena, Texas, 27–29
phenol-formaldehyde runaway reaction, 553–554
pigment and filter, 538
pump failure, 547–548
Seveso, Italy, 26–27
static electricity, 536–539
storage bin explosion, 537
toxic release, 25–27
vapor cloud explosions (VCE), 23–25, 27–29
vessels, workers in, 552
vinyl chloride explosions, 552–553
water, dangerous expansion of, 553
Ceiling limit (C), 55
Celluloses
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
St classes and combustion data, 261
Centrifuge, explosion in, 536–537
Charge, electrostatic, 324–330
Chattering, 383
Check valves, 125
Chemical Exposure Index (CEI), 437, 445–447
Chemical hazards, definition, 2
Chemical reactivity
case histories, 540–546
functional groups, 541–542, 543
Chen, N. H., 124
Chlorine
boiling point, 440
EEGL values, 204
ERPG values, 201
flash point, 440
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
probit correlation for exposure, 51
respiratory toxicity, 38
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 56
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Chlorine dioxide, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Chlorine trifluoride
EEGL values, 204
ERPG values, 201
Chloroacetyl chloride, ERPG values, 201
Chlorobenzene
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Chloroform, 39
decomposition temperature, 545
EEGL values, 204
energy of activation, 545
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Chloromethyl ether, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Chloromethyl methyl ether, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Chloropicrin, ERPG values, 201
Chloroprene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Chlorosulfonic acid, ERPG values, 201
Chlorotrifluoroethylene
ERPG values, 201
as hazardous peroxide, 544
Choked pressure and flow, 132–134, 139–140, 146–151
Chronic toxicity, 41
Cleveland open-cup flash point determination, 230
Coal and coal products, St classes and combustion data, 261
Coco, J. C., 225
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 65
Codes of ethics, 6
Coincidence, probability of, 484–485
Combined pressure-vacuum purging, 297–299
Combustible characteristic constant, 407
Combustion (see Fire(s))
Condensers, 376
Confined explosion, 228, 255–265
Conical pile discharge, 309, 310–311, 331
Consequence analysis, 439, 471, 499–507
Consequence, definition, 21
Consequence modeling procedure, 109, 110, 159–161, 213
Conservative analysis, 159–161
Containment
accident prevention, 27
precautions used, 23
relief systems, 371
of toxicants and dusts, 95
Contractors, and process safety management (PSM), 70
Control (see Prevention and control)
Control phase, of industrial hygiene, 63–64, 94–103
Control systems
failure rate, probability theory and, 474–480
recommendations, from investigations, 528–529
Conversion factors, units of measurement, 561–563
Craig, D. K., 206
Craven, A. D., 518
Critical flow, 132–133
Cross, J. A., 308
Crotonaldehyde
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Crowl, D. A., 73, 233, 234, 241, 275, 277, 278, 304, 486
Crozier, R. A., 412
Cubic law, 259–260
Cumene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Cyanogen
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Cyanogen chloride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Cyclohexane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
Flixborough accident, 23–24
as hazardous peroxide, 544
material factor (MF), 440
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Cyclohexanol, 80
boiling point, 440
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Cyclohexanone, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Cyclohexene, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Cyclohexylamine, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Cyclopentane, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Cyclopropane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
Damage
from blasts, 265–269
estimates for common structures, 267
Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI) estimation, 441–442
missile, 279
Darby, R., 386
Darcy formula, 140
Davis, J. S., 206
dBA (decibels), 84–85
dB (decibels), 84
Deaths (see Fatalities)
Decane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
Decibels (dB), dBA), 84–85
Deflagration index, 259–260
Deflagrations, 228, 253–255, 522–523
Deflagration to detonation transition (DDT), 255
Deflagration venting, 404–411
Deluge sprinkler system, 344
DEMCO valve, 28
Department of Defense, 202
Dermal absorption, of toxicants, 36, 37–38
Dermatotoxic, definition, 40
De Roo, J. L., 345
Design
blowout panels, 404–406
explosion-proof (XP) areas, 340
fire and explosion prevention, 346
losses from, 16
redundancy, 486
release mitigation, 214
static electricity prevention, 331–332
system safety, 546–551
user-friendly, 529
Detonations, 228, 253–255, 523
Detoxification (liver), 39
Deuterium, flammability limits in pure oxygen, 246
DeVore, R., 206
Diacetylene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Diborane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Dichlorodifluoromethane, EEGL values, 204
Dichloroethane, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Dichloroethylene, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Dichlorofluoromethane, EEGL values, 204
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, EEGL values, 204
Dicyclopentadiene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Dielectric constants, 314
Diesel fuel
boiling point, 440
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
Diethylamine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Diethylbenzene, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Diethyl ether
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flash point, 567
as hazardous peroxide, 544
heat of combustion, 567
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
Diethyl ketone, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Diethyl peroxide
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Diketene, ERPG values, 201
Dilution ventilation, as control technique, 95, 102–103
Dimethylamine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Dimethylchlorosilane, ERPG values, 201
Dimethyldichlorosilane, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Dimethyl disulfide, ERPG values, 201
Dimethyl ether, ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
Dimethylhydrazine
EEGL values, 204
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Dimethylpentane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
Dimethylpropane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
Dioxane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
as hazardous peroxide, 544
heat of combustion, 568
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Dioxins, 27
Dip pipes, 333–336
Discharge coefficient (C), 113–115
Discharges (see Release(s))
Disopropyl ether
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Dispersion coefficient, 186, 189–190
Dispersion models, 109, 110 (see also Plumes and plume models; Puffs and puff models)
Britter-McQuaid model, 195–199
dense gases, 195–199
neutrally buoyant, 176–195
parameters affecting, 172–176
Distillation system, 378
Divinyl acetylene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Divinyl ether
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Documentation (see Records and record keeping)
Doolittle, C. M., 274
Dose-response curve, 47–48, 55
Double block and bleed systems, 530
Dow Chemical Exposure Index (CEI), 437, 445–447
Dow Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI), 432, 437–445
Drag coefficient, 373
Draining, 127–130
Duct system, explosion in, 537
Duriron, materials strength, 525
Dust explosions, 228
Dusts
combustible characteristic constant, 407
control techniques, 95
deflagration index and maximum pressures (table), 259–260
explosion apparatus, 256–258
explosion behavior, 262–263
explosions, deflagration venting for, 404–411
exposure, evaluation of, 83
flammable process classifications, 339–340
lower explosion limit, 265
minimization, wet methods and, 95
particle size and inhalation of, 39
respirator use with, 96–97
St classes and combustion data, 260–262
units of exposure, 56
Dyes, St classes and combustion data, 262
Early warning systems, 214
Eckoff, R. K., 262
ED50, 48
Eddy diffusivity (Kj), 183–184
Effective dose (ED) curve, 48
Eichel, F. G., 315, 332, 333, 334–335
Eisenberg, N. A., 52
Electrical equipment, 337, 339–340
Electrostatics, 315–330
Elimination, of toxicants, 39–40
Emergency exposure guidance levels (EEGLs), 200, 202–203, 204
Emergency planning and response, in process safety management (PSM), 71, 73–74, 214
Emergency response planning guidelines (ERPGs), 200, 201–202
Employee participation, in process safety management (PSM), 68
Enclosures, as control technique, 95
Energy
of chemical explosions, 274–276
from electrostatic discharges, 311–313
of explosion (table), 566–569
kinetic, 130
measures of, conversion factors, 562
mechanical energy balance, 112
of mechanical explosions, 276–278
Energy of explosion values, 275
Environmental controls, 95–103
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 64
risk management plan (RMP), 71–74, 159, 160
toxic endpoints, 200, 203, 205
EPA (see Environmental Protection Agency (EPA))
Epichlorohydrin
ERPG values, 201
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Epstein, M., 406
Equations, for flammability diagrams, 571–579
Equipment and hardware, 376
Equipment and instrumentation (see also Relief devices and systems; Valves)
air compressors, 249
analyzers, 531–532
balance of charges, 324–330
bonding and grounding of, 333–336
calorimeters, 366
centrifuge, explosion in, 536–537
distillation system, 378
explosion apparatus, 255–258
extraction system, 378
failure, losses from, 17
failure rate, probability theory and, 472–486
frequency, initiating events of failure, 504
as ignition sources for fires, 251–252
masks, 97
parallel linkages, 474–480
personal protection, 95–97
process units, failure/reliability of, 474–480
pump vibration, 547
reactive system screening tool (RSST), 425
respirators, 96–97
safety interlock systems (SIS), 507
series linkages, 474–480
sprinkler systems, 343–347
ventilation hoods, 99–102
vent sizing package (VSP), 366–368
Esters, flash point estimation, 231
Ethane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 566
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
liquid pool evaporation or boiling, 158
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Ethanol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
Ethanolamine, EEGL values, 204
Ethene, minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
Ethers
description and potential hazard, 78
flash point estimation, 231
Ethylacetate
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethyl alcohol (see Ethanol)
Ethyl amine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethyl benzene
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethyl bromide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethyl butanol, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Ethyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethylene, 546
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 566
flammability diagram, 245
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
liquid pool evaporation or boiling, 158
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Ethylene chloride, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Ethylenediamine, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Ethylene dichloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Ethylene glycol, EEGL values, 204
Ethyleneimine, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Ethylene oxide, 546
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
decomposition temperature, 545
EEGL values, 204
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 568
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
probit correlation for exposure, 51
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Ethyl ether
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ethyl formate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Ethyl mercaptan, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Evaluation phase, of industrial hygiene, 63–64, 78–94
Evaporation, liquid pools, model of, 157–158
Excretion, 39
Exothermic reactor, 452–454
Expansion factor, 142–143
Explosion-proof (XP) areas, 339–340
Explosion(s) (see also BLEVE; Vapor cloud explosions (VCE))
accident investigations, 522–523
behavior of, 252–282
butadiene, 546–547
characteristics, 258–265
definition, 228
deflagration venting for, 404–411
detonation and deflagration, 253–255
in duct systems, 537
energy of, 274–276
energy released by, 275
ethylene oxide, 546
fires vs., 227
fuel-blending tank, 555
hydrocarbons, 547
isopropyl ether, 540
losses from, 15–16
mechanical, energy of, 276–278
nitrobenzene sulfonic acid decomposition, 540–541
organic oxidation, 541
from peroxidation reactions, 542–546
pigment and filter, 538
prevention methods, 291–347
probit parameters for, 51
pump failure, 547–548
pump vibration, 547
secondary, 264
as secondary reaction, 554–555
in storage bin, 537
tank car loading, 536
test apparatus, 255–258
thermodynamic availability and, 275
TNO multi-energy method, 271–274
unconfined, 228
vinyl chloride, 552–553
water, dangerous expansion of, 553
Extraction system, 378
Factory Mutual Engineering Corporation, 251
Failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA), 460
Failure rate, probability theory and, 472–486
Failures
coincidence and, 484–485
common mode, 486
initiating events, frequency of, 504
probability of failure on demand (PFD), 503–507
pump, explosion from, 547–548
revealed and unrevealed, 480–484
Fanning friction factor, 122–123
Fatal accident rate (FAR), 7–9
Fatalities
accidental, 12
accident rate (FAR), computation of, 7
probit parameters for, 51
rate, for selected industries, 8
recordable cases, 6
recreational, 9
voluntary and involuntary activities, 9
in the workplace, 13
Fatty tissues, 39–40
Fauske, H. K., 154, 397, 401, 402, 403
Federal Register, 65
Filling operations, toxicant exposure, evaluation of, 92–94
Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI), 432, 437–445
Fire point, 227
Fire(s)
accident investigations, 522
definition, 227
diagnosis of ignition, 522
explosions vs., 227
flammability diagram, 240–248
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239–240
losses from, 15
major, ignition sources of, 251–252
prevention methods, 291–347
probit parameters for, 51
sprinkler systems for, 343–347
triangle, 225–227
venting for, 411– 415
First aid, OSHA definition, 6
Fitzgerald, G. A., 274
Flammability characteristics, of gases and liquids, 229–238
Flammability diagrams, 240–248, 301–307, 571–579
Flammability limits, 228, 233–238, 252, 301–307
for hydrocarbons (table), 566–569
Flammable materials
combustible characteristic constant, 407
fire and explosion models, 109
flammable process classifications, 339–340
hydrocarbons, flammability data for, 566–569
properties, relationships among, 229
ventilation data, 342
Flanges, bonding and grounding of, 335
Flares, 375–376
Flashing liquids, 151–157
Flash point (FP), 227, 230–232, 566–569
Flixborough, England, 23–25
Flow
of gases through pipes, 136–151
from liquid pools, model of, 157–158
of liquids through pipes, 121–130
of liquids through spring-type relief, 385
Flow-through spring reliefs, 384–389
Fluids (see Liquids)
Fluorine
EEGL values, 204
respiratory toxicity, 38
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
FMECA (failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis), 460
Formaldehyde
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
phenol, runaway reaction, 553–554
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Formal safety review, 456–459, 581–589
Formic acid, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Forms (see Records and record keeping)
Forrest, H. S., 366
Free expansion release, 130–132
Frequency analysis, 503–507
Friction factor, 122–125
Fuel oils
boiling point, 440
flash points, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
Fuels, 226 (see also Gasoline)
diesel, 440
Dow F&EI data, 440
flammability diagram, 241
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
out-of-service concentration (OSFCs), 303, 304
Functional groups (chemistry), structure of, 542
Furancarboxaldehyde
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Furan, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Furfural, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Fussell, J. B., 495
Garrison, W. G., 547
Gases and vapors
adiabatic flow, 136–143
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566–569
boiling point, 440
choked pressure and flow, 132–134
combustible characteristic constant, 407
deflagration index and maximum pressures (table), 259–260
dense gas dispersion model, 195–199
dispersion models, 176–199
Dow Chemical Exposure Index (CEI), 440
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 274–278, 566–569
equations, for flammability diagrams, 571–579
ERPG values, 201–202
explosion apparatus, 255–256, 257
explosions, deflagration venting for, 404–411
explosions of, 252
exposure, evaluation of, 79–83, 85–94
flammability characteristics, 233
flammability limits, 566–569
flammable process classifications, 339–340
flammable properties, 229
flammable, solids handing and, 337, 338
free expansion release, 130–132
heat capacity ratios (table), 134
heat of combustion, 440, 566–569
holes, flow through, 130–135
ideal gas constants (Rg), 563
isothermal flow, 143–151
leaks of, 111–112
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
molecular weights (table), 134
pipes, flow through, 136–151
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
service systems, reliefs for, 389–393, 394–395
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
units of exposure, 56
vapor mixtures, flammability characteristics, 233–235
Gasoline
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Gastrointestinal tract, 36, 37
Gate valves, 125
Gifford, F. A., 187
Gior, M., 310
Glassman, I., 248
Glass, materials strength, 525
Globe valves, 125
Glor, M., 312
Glycerin, thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
Glyme, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Government (see also Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA); OSHA)
laws and regulations, 64–68
toxic effect criteria, 200–207
Graham, K. J., 268
Graphite, St classes and combustion data, 262
Gravitational constant (gc), 563
Green, D. W., 115
Grinding, 315
Grolmes, M. A., 397
Ground conditions, 172, 175–176, 187–188
Grounding, 332–335
Halogens, flash point estimation, 231
Hansen, D. J., 206
Hardware (see Equipment and instrumentation)
Hastelloy C, materials strength, 525
Hazard analysis, 429
Hazard assessment, in risk management plan (RMP), 72
Hazard(s)
process hazard analysis (PHA), in process safety management (PSM), 69–70
reaction hazard index (RHI), 542, 544–546
toxic, 35–36
Hazards and operability (HAZOP) study, 69, 431, 448–454, 471
Hazards identification, 74–78, 429–460 (see also Risk assessment)
procedure, 429–431
Hazards surveys, 431, 432, 437–447
HAZOP (Hazards and operability study), 69, 431, 448–454, 471
Hearing, 84–85
Heat capacity ratios (γ), 134
Heat measures, conversion factors, 562
Heat of combustion (table), 566–569
Helium, heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
Hemotoxic, definition, 40
Hepatotoxic, definition, 40
Heptane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Hexachlorobutadiene, ERPG values, 201
Hexachloroethane, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Hexafluoroacetone, ERPG values, 201
Hexafluoropropylene, ERPG values, 201
Hexane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 250, 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Hilgner, W., 311
Himmelblau, D. M., 82
Hodge-Sterner table, for degree of toxicity, 54
Holland formula, 212
Hoods, ventilation, 99–102
Horizontal knockout drums, 371–375
Hot work permits, in process safety management (PSM), 70–71
Housings, explosion-proof, 339
Human error, 16–17
Human error analysis, 460
Hydraulic failures, accident investigations, 523
Hydrazine
decomposition temperature, 545
EEGL values, 204
energy of activation, 545
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Hydrocarbons
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566–569
combustible characteristic constant, 407
energy of explosion, 274, 566–569
explosions, 547
flammability data (table), 566–569
flash point estimation, 231
flash points, 566–569
heat of combustion, 566–569
liquid pool evaporation or boiling, 158
Hydrochloric acid, description and potential hazard, 78
Hydrocyanic acid
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Hydrogen
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 568
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
Hydrogen bromide, respiratory toxicity, 38
Hydrogen chloride
EEGL values, 204
ERPG values, 201
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
probit correlation for exposure, 51
respiratory toxicity, 38
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Hydrogen cyanide
ERPG values, 201
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Hydrogen fluoride
ERPG values, 201
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Hydrogen halides, respiratory toxicity, 38
Hydrogen peroxide, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Hydrogen selenide, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Hydrogen sulfide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 568
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
heat of combustion, 568
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
respiratory toxicity, 39
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Hydroxides, respiratory toxicity, 38
Icmesa Chemical Company, 26–27
Ideal gas constants (Rg), 563
Identification phase, of industrial hygiene, 63, 74–78
IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health), 56, 200, 202
Ignition
adiabatic compression, 249–251
autoignition temperature (AIT), 227, 249, 566–569
definition, 227
flammability diagram, 241
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
static electricity as source of, 252, 307–330
vapor cloud explosions (VCE), 281
vessel deflagration and, 523
Incidence rate, accidents, 5–7, 8
Incident, definition, 21
Incident identification, 471
Incident investigation, in process safety management (PSM), 71
Independent protection layers (IPL), 501, 504–507
Industrial accident rates, 8
Industrial hygiene
control phase of, 63–64, 94–103
evaluation phase, 63–64, 78–94
identification phase, 63, 74–78
laws and regulations, 64–68
Informal safety review, 455–456
Ingestion, of toxicants, 36–37
Inhalation, of toxicants, 36, 38–39
Initiation, in accident process, 18–19
Injection, of toxicants, 36, 37–38
In-service oxygen concentrations (ISOCs), 304
Inspections, OSHA’s rights to, 66
Instrumentation (see Equipment and instrumentation)
Intensification, in inherent safety, 21–22
Investigations, accident, 515–532
Iodine, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Iron, pentacarbonyl-, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Iron, St classes and combustion data, 262
Isentropic expansion method, 277, 278
Isoamyl alcohol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Isobutane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
Isobutene, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Isobutyl alcohol, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Isobutyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Isobutyl formate
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Isobutylnitrile, ERPG values, 201
Isobutyronitrile, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
ISOC (In-service oxygen concentrations), 304
Isocyanatoethyl methylacrylate, ERPG values, 201
Isopentane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Isopropanol (see Isopropyl alcohol)
Isopropyl acetate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Isopropyl alcohol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Isopropyl chloroformate, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Isopropyl ether
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
explosion, 540
as hazardous peroxide, 544
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Isothermal expansion method, 277, 278
Isothermal flow, 143–151
James, R. C., 55
Jennett, E., 369
Jones, G. W., 236
Jones, T. B., 309
JP fuels
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Kelly, R. J., 543
Kern, D. Q., 376
Kern, R., 357
Kerosine, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Ketene, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Ketones, flash point estimation, 231
K-factors, 125
Kinetic energy, 130
King, J. L., 309
Kinney, G. F., 268
Kirby, D. C., 345
Kletz, T. A., 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 156, 516, 518, 520
Koide, K., 237
Kuchta, J. M., 233
Lambiris, S., 235
Laws, 64, 66, 67–68 (see also Regulations)
Layered investigations, 516–518
Layer of protection analysis (LOPA), 499, 500–503
LC (lethal concentration), 48
Le Chatelier, H., 233
Le Chatelier’s equation, 233–234
Lees, F. P., 8, 9, 51, 114, 184, 186, 252, 263, 265, 281, 282, 523
Lethal concentration (LC), 48
Lethal dose (LD) curve, 47–48
Leung, J. C., 384, 397, 398, 399, 402, 412, 414
Levenspiel, O., 122, 123, 138, 144, 145, 146
Lewis, B., 246
Lewis, R. I., 78
Lightning-like discharge, 309, 311, 332
Likelihood, definition, 21
Limited aperture releases
definition, 111
liquid flow through hole, 112–116
tank, liquid flow through hole, 116–121
vapors through holes, 130–135
Limiting oxygen concentration (LOC), 239–240, 292
Linear measures, conversion factors, 562
Liquids
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566–569
BLEVE, 282
boiling point, 440
Dow Chemical Exposure Index (CEI), 440
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 566–569
ERPG values, 201–202
flammability characteristics, 230–232
flammability limits, 566–569
flashing, 151–157
flash point determination, 230–232
flow, release models, 112–121
heat capacity ratios (table), 134
heat of combustion, 440, 566–569
leaks, 111–112
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
mixtures, flash point determination, 231–232
pipes, flow through, 121–130
pool evaporation or boiling, 157–158
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
service systems, reliefs for, 384–389, 394
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
thermal expansion coefficients (β) for, 417
thermal expansion reliefs, 415–418
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
vaporization rate of, 88–92
Liquified natural gas (LNG), 158
Lithium bromide, EEGL values, 204
Lithium chromate, EEGL values, 204
Lithium hydride, ERPG values, 201
Local ventilation, as control technique, 95, 99–102
Losses
definition, 11
economic, 15
industrial, distribution of, 17
Loss of life (see Fatalities)
Loss prevention, 2
Lost workdays, OSHA definition, 6
Louvar, J. F., 537
Lower explosion limit, 265
Lower flammability limits (LFL), 233–238, 246, 304
Lubricating oils, 250
Luttgens, G., 311
Magnesium, St classes and combustion data, 262
Maintenance
mechanical failures and, 16
preventive, 530–531
Maleic anhydride, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Management of change, in process safety management (PSM), 71
Management, process safety, 68–71
Mashuga, C. W., 233, 234, 241, 244, 245, 278, 304
Masks, 97
Mass equivalents, conversion factors, 561
Material factor (MF), 437, 438
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 74–78
Materials strength, of vessels, 524–525
Mathematical models (see Models and modeling)
Matthiessen, R. C., 88, 90, 93, 107
Maurer, B., 310, 311, 312, 537
Maximum allowable accumulated pressure (MAAP), 357
Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP), 356
Maximum probable days outage (MPDO), 441–442, 471
Maximum probable property damage (MPPD), 441– 442, 471
McCormack, W. B., 543
Mean time between coincidences (MTBC), 485–486
Mean time between failures (MTBF), 473
Measurement units, conversion factors, 561–563
Mechanical energy balance, 112
Mechanical explosion, 228
Mechanical failure, 16
Mechanical hazards, definition, 2
Mechanical integrity, in process safety management (PSM), 70
Medical evidence, investigations and, 525
Medical treatment, OSHA definition, 6
Mercury (liquid), thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
Mercury (vapor)
EEGL values, 204
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
Methane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
combustible characteristic constant, 407
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 566
flammability diagram, 241, 244
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
lower flammability limit (LFL), 304
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
Methanol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
boiling point, 440
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 567
ERPG values, 201
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
molecular weight, 232
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methyl acetate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 57
Methyl acetylene
as hazardous peroxide, 544
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methyl alcohol (see Methanol)
Methyl amine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methyl bromide
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methyl butene
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Methyl butyl ketone
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
as hazardous peroxide, 544
heat of combustion, 567
Methyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
ERPG values, 201
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
heat of combustion, 568
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Methyl chloroform, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Methyl cyanide, respiratory toxicity, 39
Methylcyclohexane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Methylcyclopentane, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Methylene chloride
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methylene chloride, ERPG values, 201
Methyl ether/boron trifluoride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Methyl ethyl ketone
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methyl formate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Methylhydrazine
EEGL values, 204
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Methyl iodide, ERPG values, 201
Methyl isocyanate (MIC)
Bhopal, India accident, 25–26
ERPG values, 202
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Methyl mercaptan
ERPG values, 202
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Methyl methacrylate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Methylpropene, ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
Methyl propyl ketone
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Methyl thiocyanate, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Methyltrichlorosilane
ERPG values, 202
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Micronizing, 315
Mineral oil
boiling point, 440
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
Minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248, 312–313
Missile damage, 279
Mists and sprays, 252
Mitigation, release, 213–214
Models and modeling, 259–260
blast damage, 267–269
choked flow, 147–151
consequence modeling procedure, 109, 110
conservative analysis, 159–161
dispersion models, 109, 110, 176–199
effect models, 109
electrostatics, 315–330
energy of explosion, 276–277
explosions, 258–265
flashing liquids, 151–157
gas and vapor service systems, reliefs for, 389–393, 389–394
gas flow through pipes, 136–151
horizontal knockout drum design, 371–375
liquid flow through hole, 112–116
liquid pool evaporation or boiling, 157–158
liquid service systems, reliefs for, 384–389, 394
nomograph method, relief sizing, 401–404
Pasquill-Gifford model, 186–195
release mitigation, 213–214
source models, 109–159
tank, liquid flow through hole, 116–121
TNO multi-energy method, 271–274
TNT equivalency, 269–270
2-K method, 124–130
uncertainty in, 159–161
vapor flow through holes, 130–135
Molavi, K., 386
Momentum and buoyancy, 172, 176, 212–213
Monitoring, industrial hygiene, role of, 63
Monomethylamine, ERPG values, 202
MSA masks and respirators, 97
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets), 74–78
MTBC (mean time between coincidences), 485–486
Muller, A. R., 366
Mutagen, definition, 40
Naphtha
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Naphthalene
St classes and combustion data, 261
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 200
National Electric Code (NEC), 339–340
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 65, 96–97, 200, 202
National Research Council (NRC), 200, 202–203, 204
Natural gas
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Natural hazards, 16
Nephrotoxic, definition, 40
Nervous system, 40
Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), 271
Neurotoxic, definition, 40
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 200, 203
Nickel carbonyl, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Nickel, materials strength, 525
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health), 65, 96–97, 200, 202
Nitric acid
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Nitric oxide
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Nitrobenzene sulfonic acid, decomposition, case history, 540–541
Nitrobenzene, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Nitrogen
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
vacuum and pressure purging with, 297–299
Nitrogen-containing compounds, flash point estimation, 231
Nitrogen dioxide
EEGL values, 204
probit correlation for exposure, 51
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Nitrogen oxides, respiratory toxicity, 38
Nitroglycerine
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Nitromethane, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Nitrous oxide
EEGL values, 204
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
Noise, exposure, evaluation of, 84–85
Nomograph method, relief sizing, 401–404
Nonane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat of combustion, 566
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Normal (Gaussian) distribution curve, 42–46
Noronha, J. A., 366
Nypro Limited, 23–25
Occupational illness, OSHA definition, 6
Occupational injury, OSHA definition, 6
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHAct, 1970), 65
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (see OSHA)
Octane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
material factor (MF), 440
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Olefins
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash points, 566
heat of combustion, 566
Oleum, ERPG values, 202
Olishifski, J. B., 65
Open-air plants, 340–341
Operating pressure, 356
Operating procedures, in process safety management (PSM), 70
Operator error, 16–17
Organic oxidation, 541–546
OSFC (Out-of-service fuel concentrations), 304
OSHA
accident statistics, 5–8
definitions, 6
enforcement, right of, 66
Pasadena, Texas, explosion investigation, 28–29
permissible exposure level (PEL), 54–59, 200
“Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals”, 17–18, 68–71
respirator use standards, 96–97
Out-of-service fuel concentrations (OSFCs), 304
Overpressure correction factor (Kp), 386–387
Overpressures (see also Pressure)
blast damage from, 265–269
damage estimates for structures, 267
definition, 356–357
estimating, 269
relief sizing, 383–418
Sachs-scaled blast side-on, 272–274
Oxalic acid, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Oxidation
auto-oxidation, 249
organic, 541–546
peroxidation, 542–546
Oxides, respiratory toxicity, 38
Oxidizers, for fires, 226, 241
Oxygen
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
in-service concentrations (ISOCs), 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239–240
Ozone
EEGL values, 204
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Pan, L. C., 524
Paracelsus, 35
Paraffins
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash points, 566
heat of combustion, 566
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
Paraldehyde
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Parallel linkage of components, 474–480
Pasadena, Texas, 27–29
Pasquill, F., 190
Pasquill-Gifford model, 186–195
PEL (permissible exposure level), 54–59
Pentacarbonyl-iron, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Pentanes
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Pentenes
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
flash points, 566
heat of combustion, 566
People
capacitance of, 317
health hazard assessment, CEI, 445–447
vessels, working in, 552
Peracetic acid, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Perchloromethylmercaptan, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Perfluoroisobutylene, ERPG values, 202
Permissible exposure level (PEL), 54–59
Peroxidation, 543–546
Perry, J. H., 314
Personal protection, as control technique, 95–97
Petrocchi, A. J., 206
Petroleum (crude)
boiling point, 440
flash point, 440
heat of combustion, 440
material factor (MF), 440
Petroleum fractions, flash point estimation, 231
Phenol, 38
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
description and potential hazard, 78
energy of explosion, 567
ERPG values, 202
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
formaldehyde, runaway reaction, 553–554
heat of combustion, 567
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Phosgene
boiling point, 455
EEGL values, 204
ERPG values, 202
probit correlation for exposure, 51
respiratory toxicity, 39
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Phosphine
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Phosphoric acid, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Phosphorus compounds, flash point estimation, 231
Phosphorus oxychloride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Phosphorus pentoxide, ERPG values, 202
Phthalic anhydride, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Pipe fittings, 124–125
Piperidine, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Pipes, 136–151
bonding and grounding of, 335
gases, flow through, 136–151
liquids, flow through, 121–130
roughness factors, 122
Plants inside buildings, 341–343
Plog, B. A., 84–85
Plug valves, 125
Plumes and plume models, 173, 176–177 (see also Dispersion models)
Britter-McQuaid model, 195–199
dense gases, 195–199
non-steady-state, no wind, 182
steady-state continuous, above ground, with wind, 192–193
steady-state continuous, ground level, with wind, 191–192
steady-state continuous, at height above ground, 186
steady-state continuous, no wind, 179–181, 207–208
steady-state continuous, with wind, 183, 184, 210–212
steady-state, ground source, 185
worst-case scenario, 194
Pneumatic failures, accident investigations, 523
Pneumatic transport, of solids, 315
Poise, 563
Poison, definition, 35
Polymerization reactors, 360, 361
Polymers and plastics, St classes and combustion data, 261
Potassium, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Potassium hydroxide, respiratory toxicity, 38
Pouring, 315
Powell, T. J., 206
Power equivalents, conversion factors, 562
ppm (parts per million), 56
Pressure (see also Overpressures; Relief devices and systems)
backpressure, 357
effects, accident investigations and, 523–525
flammability limits and, 233, 235
maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP), 356
measures of, conversion factors, 562
operating, 356
set, 356
time curves for runaway reactions, 354–355
Pressure fronts, 253–255
Pressure purging, 295–297, 299
Pre-startup safety review, in process safety management (PSM), 70
Prevention and control
of explosions, 291–347, 337–347
of static electricity, 330–337
vapor cloud explosions (VCE), 281–282
Prevention programs
preventive maintenance, 530–531
process hazard analysis (PHA), in process safety management (PSM), 68–71
risk management plan (RMP), 71–74
Preventive maintenance, 530–531
Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), 429
Probability of failure on demand (PFD), 503–507
Probability theory, 472–486
Probit method, for dose-response curves, 49–53
Process components, failure rate, probability theory and, 474–480
Process design, 20–23
Processes, electrostatic charge buildup for, 315
Process hazard analysis (PHA), in process safety management (PSM), 69–70
Process hazards checklist, 431, 432, 433–436
Process safety information, in process safety management (PSM), 68–69
“Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals” (OSHA), 17–18, 68
Process Safety Management (PSM), 68–71, 214
Process upsets, 16
Production losses, 11
Propagating brush discharge, 309–310, 331
Propagation, in accident process, 18–19
Propane
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
flammability limits, 566
flash point, 566
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
heat of combustion, 566
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
minimum ignition energy (mJ), 248
Propanol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Propene (see Propylene)
Propene-ol
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
Propionitrile, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Propyl acetate
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Propyl amine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Propyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
Propyl chloroformate, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Propylene
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 566
heat capacity ratio (γ), 134
ISOCs and OSFCs, 304
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Propylene dichloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Propyleneimine, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Propylene oxide, 80
autoignition temperature (AIT), 568
energy of explosion, 568
ERPG values, 202
flammability limits, 568
flash point, 568
heat of combustion, 568
probit correlation for exposure, 51
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Puffs and puff models, 174, 176–179 (see also Dispersion models)
above ground source, fixed coordinate system, 194
above ground source, moving coordinate system, 193–194
Britter-McQuaid model, 195–199
dense gases, 195–199
ground source, no wind, 185
ground source, with wind, 190–191, 208–210
Pasquill-Gifford dispersion coefficients, 189–190
with wind, 185
without wind, 181–182, 183–184
worst-case scenario, 194
Pulmonotoxic, definition, 40
Pumps, 547–548
Purgh, R. W., 51
Purging, 292–301
Pyrex, properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
Pyridine, TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Quantitative risk analysis (QRA), 429, 499–500
Quartz dust, 83
Raoult’s law, 232
Reaction hazard index (RHI), 542, 544–546
Reactive system screening tool (RSST), 425
Recommendations, from investigations, 528–532
Recordable cases, OSHA definition, 6
Recordable fatality cases, OSHA definition, 6
Records and record keeping
accident report, 19
accident summary, 519–521
consequence analysis, 439
Dow Chemical Exposure Index (CEI), 446
Dow Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI), 443
event trees, 488–490
Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI), 438
formal safety review, 457, 581–589
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets), 74–78
process safety checklist, 433–436
safety programs, 3–4
Redundancy, in design, 486
Regulations, 64–68
OSHA, 17–18
risk management plan (RMP), 71–74
table of, 66
Relative toxicity, 54
Relaxation, 332
Release mitigation, 213–214
Release(s) (see also Accident(s); Toxic release)
choked, 132–134
free expansion, 130–132
limited aperture, 111–112
process incidents, selection criteria for, 160
source models, 109–159
throttling, 130
toxic effect criteria, 200–207
wide aperture, 111–112
Reliability, probability theory and, 473
Relief devices and systems
concept of, 353–356
condensers, 376
definition, 357
deflagration venting, 404–411
flares, 375–376
horizontal knockout drums, 371–375
installation of, 353–354, 368, 369–370
location specifications and guidelines, 357–360
scrubbers, 376
sizing, data for, 365–368
thermal expansion, 415–418
types of, 360–364
vent area calculation, 383
vents, 408–415
Relief events, 364–365
Relief pressures, guidelines for, 358
Relief sizing, 383–418 (see also Vents)
Relief valve, 363
Reproductive hazard, definition, 40
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 73–74
Respirators, 95–97
Respiratory system, 36, 38–39, 40
Revealed failures, 480–482
Reynolds number, 113–115, 122–123
RHI (reaction hazard index), 542, 544–546
Rijnsdorp, J. E., 472
Risk analysis and assessment, 471–507
event trees, 486–491
fault trees, 491–499
hazards identification and, 429–431, 471
layer of protection analysis (LOPA), 499, 500–503
probability theory and failures, 472–486
quantitative risk analysis (QRA), 499–500
Risk management plan (RMP, EPA), 71–74, 159, 160, 203
Risk reduction, 21–23
Risk(s)
acceptable, 12–14
Roffel, B., 472
Rondestvedt, C. S., 543
Rubber
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
St classes and combustion data, 261
Runaway reactions, 355–356
phenol-formaldehyde, 553–554
relief, two-phase flow during, 395–404
relief vent sizing, 366–368
Runes equation, 406
Rupture disc relief systems, 362–363, 394–395
Rural releases, 187–188
Sabotage and arson, 16
Sachs-scaled blast side-on overpressure, 272–274
Safety
definition, 2
expenditures, diminishing returns, 11
inherent, 20–23
reviews, 70
Safety interlock systems (SIS), 507
Safety relief valve, 363
Safety valve, 363
Salicylic acid, St classes and combustion data, 261
Saturation vapor pressure data, 591
Sax, N. I., 54, 99, 100, 102, 105
Scenario, definition, 21
Scenario identification, 429
Schwab, R. R., 406
Scott, G. S., 235
Scrubbers, 376
Senecal, J. A., 260
Series linkage of components, 474–480
Set pressure, 356
Seveso, Italy, 26–27
Shaw, D. A., 366
Short-term exposure limit (STEL), 55
Short-term public emergency guidance levels (SPEGLs), 200
Sieving, 315
Silica, respiratory toxicity, 39
Silicon, St classes and combustion data, 262
Simplification, in inherent safety, 21–23
Siphon purging, 301
Slate, properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
Sliding, of solids, 315
Smeltz, K. C., 543
Smith, J. M., 154
Sodium amide, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Sodium chloride, description and potential hazard, 78
Sodium hydroxide
description and potential hazard, 78
EEGL values, 204
Sodium oxide, respiratory toxicity, 38
Solids, handling and transporting, 315, 337, 338
Solow, R. M., 1
Sonic flow, 132–133
Sonic pressure drop, 142–143
Soot, respiratory toxicity, 39
Source models, 109–159
Specific conductivity, 314
Spills (see Release(s))
Spirometer, 40
Sprays and mists, 252
Spring-loaded pressure reliefs, 363
Spring-operated reliefs, 361, 362, 383, 384–393
Sprinkler systems, 343–347
Stainless steels, materials strength, 525
Standards, 65
“Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals”, 68–71
respirator use standards, 96–97
Static electricity
case histories, 536–539
charge buildup and accumulation, 307–308, 328–330
control of, 330–337
discharges, types and energy from, 309–312
electrostatics, 315–330
electrostatic values for calculations, 315
as ignition source, 307–330
from sprays and mists, 252
Statistics
accident, 4–12
normal distribution, 42–46
probit method for dose-response curves, 49–53
St classes and values, 259–262
Storage bin explosion, 537
Storage, in fatty tissues, 39–40
Streaming current, 313–315, 332
Strelzoff, S., 524
Stull, D. R., 542
Styrene
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 569
ERPG values, 202
flammability limits, 569
as hazardous peroxide, 544
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Substitution, in inherent safety, 21–22
Sulfonic acid, ERPG values, 202
Sulfur
flash point estimation, 231
St classes and combustion data, 262
Sulfur dioxide
EEGL values, 204
ERPG values, 202
probit correlation for exposure, 51
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Sulfuric acid
EEGL values, 204
ERPG values, 202
Sulfur oxides, respiratory toxicity, 38
Sulfur tetrafluoride, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Sulfur trioxide
ERPG values, 202
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Sussman, M. V., 275
Sutton, O. G., 186
Suzuki, T., 237
Sweep-through purging, 299–301
Swift-Epstein equation, 406–407
Swift, I., 406
Talc dust, 83
Tang, M. J., 274
Tanks
bonding and grounding of, 333–335
capacitance of, 321–324
dip pipes, 333–336
models of release from, 116–121
Tan, S. H., 375
TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin), 27
TD curve, 48
Teflon, properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
Temperature
adiabatic temperature increase, 250
flammability limits and, 235
Tempering, 396
Teratogen, definition, 40
Termination, in accident process, 18–19
Tetrafluoroethylene, ERPG values, 202
Tetrahydrofluoroethylene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Tetrahydrofuran, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Tetrahydronaphthalene, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Tetramethyl lead, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Tetranitromethane, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Thermal expansion coefficient (β), 415–417
Thermal expansion reliefs, 415–418
Thermodynamic availability, 275, 277, 278
Thibodeaux, L. J., 90
Threshold limit values (TLVs), 54–59
Throttling release, 130
Tilley, B. J., 366
Time-weighted average (TWA), 55, 79–80
Titanium tetrachloride
ERPG values, 202
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
TLV (threshold limit values), 54–59
TNO multi-energy method, 271–274
Toluene
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
decomposition temperature, 545
description and potential hazard, 78
EEGL values, 204
energy of activation, 545
energy of explosion, 566
ERPG values, 202
flammability limits, 566
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
material factor (MF), 440
maximum pressure and deflagration index, 260
molecular weight, 91
probit correlation for exposure, 51
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
splash filling (example), 94
TLV for, 81
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Toluene diisocyanates, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Toner, St classes and combustion data, 262
Tou, J. C., 366
Townsend, D. I., 366
Toxicants (see also Dusts)
absorption of, 36–39
biological entry routes, 36–39
dose-response curves, 47–48
EEGLs (table), 204
elimination, from biological systems, 39–40
EPA toxic endpoints (table), 205
ERPGs (table), 201–202
guidelines, recommended hierarchy, 205
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 74–78
PELs, table of, 56–58
threshold limit values (TLVs), 54–59
TLV-TWA, table of, 56–58
toxic effect criteria, 199–212
upper respiratory tract, 38–39
volatile, exposure to, 79–83
Toxic dose (TD) curve, 48
Toxic hazard, definition, 35–36
Toxicity
acute, 41
chronic, 41
definition, 35
diagnosis of, 40–41
dose vs. response, 42–48
Hodge-Sterner table, 54
individual variation in, 42–48
relative, 54
reversible/irreversible, definitions of, 40
Toxicity dispersion (TXDS) methods, 200, 203
Toxicological studies, 41
Toxicology, 35–59
Toxic release, 15, 16 (see also Accident(s);
Release(s))
Bhopal, India, 25–26
models (see Dispersion models)
probit parameters for, 51
Seveso, Italy, 26–27
Trade secrets, in process safety management (PSM), 71
Training programs, in process safety management (PSM), 70
Treybal, R. E., 376
Trichloroethylene
EEGL values, 204
limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Trichlorofluoromethane, EEGL values, 204
Trichlorotrifluoroethane, EEGL values, 204
Triethylamine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Trimethylamine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
energy of explosion, 569
ERPG values, 202
flammability limits, 569
flash point, 569
heat of combustion, 569
Trimethylchlorosilane, toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) (see TNT equivalency)
Turbulent flow, 122–123
Turpentine
autoignition temperature (AIT), 567
energy of explosion, 567
flammability limits, 567
flash point, 567
heat of combustion, 567
thermal expansion coefficients (β), 417
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
TWA (time-weighted average), 55, 79–80
2-K method, 124–130
TXDS (toxicity dispersion) methods, 200
Uncertainty, in models, 159–161
Unconfined explosion, 228
Union Carbide, 25–26
United States Code (USC), 64
Units, of exposure, 56
Units of measurement, conversion factors, 561–563
Unrevealed failures, 482–484
Upper flammability limits (UFL), 233–238, 246
Uranium hexafluoride, ERPG values, 202
Urban releases, 188
Valves, 124–125
balanced-bellows, 361–362
block, 529–530
bonding and grounding of, 335
Van Ness, H. C., 154
Vapor cloud explosions (VCE), 281–282
with BLEVE, 282
Flixborough, England, 23–25
losses from, 15–16
Pasadena, Texas, 27–29
prevention methods, 281–282
TNO multi-energy method, 271–274
TNT equivalency method, 270
Vaporization, liquid pools, model of, 157–158
Vaporization rate, of liquids, 88–92
Vapors (see Gases and vapors)
VCE (see Vapor cloud explosions (VCE))
Ventilation, 95, 97–103, 340–343
Vents
for external fires, 411–415
high-pressure structures, 408–411
low-pressure structures, 406–408
vent sizing package (VSP), 366–368
Vesely, W. E., 495
Vessel filling, toxicant exposure, evaluation of, 92–94
Vessels
bonding and grounding of, 333–335
capacitance of, 321–324
deflagration of, ignition source and, 523
dip pipes, 333–336
electrostatic charge buildup and accumulation, 328–330
fuel-blending tank explosion, 555
ignition sources, accident investigations and, 523
leak testing, 552
materials strength, 524–525
placing in-service, 304–307, 576–579
pressure effects, accident investigations and, 523–525
taking out of service, 301–303, 576–579
venting for external fires, 411–415
water cooling systems, 345
workers in, 552
Vibration, 547
Viele, I. E., 543
Vinyl acetate
ERPG values, 202
as hazardous peroxide, 544
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
toxic endpoints (EPA RMP), 205
Vinylacetylene
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
as hazardous peroxide, 544
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Vinyl chloride
autoignition temperature (AIT), 569
boiling point, 440
energy of explosion, 569
explosions, 552–553
flammability limits, 569
as hazardous peroxide, 544
material factor (MF), 440
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Vinyl ethers, as hazardous peroxides, 544
Vinyl ethyl ether
decomposition temperature, 545
energy of activation, 545
reaction hazard index (RHI), 545
Vinylidene chloride, EEGL values, 204
Vinylidine chloride, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Vinyl pyridine, as hazardous peroxide, 544
Vinyltoluene, limiting oxygen concentrations (LOC), 239
Viscosity correction factor (Kv), 386–387
Volatile toxicants, exposure, evaluation of, 79–83
Voltage drops, electrostatic, 316
Volume equivalents, conversion factors, 561
von Elbe, G., 246
Walsh-Healey Act (1936), 65
Water
dangerous expansion of, 553
molecular weight, 232
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
static electricity prevention, 336
Webb, H. E., 433
Wet methods, as control technique, 95
Wet-pipe sprinkler system, 343
What-if analysis, 459
Wide aperture releases, definition, 111
Wider, A., 311
Williams, P. L., 49
Wind and wind speed, 172, 175–176
Wong, W. Y., 413
Wood
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
St classes and combustion data, 261
Workplace fatalities, 13
Work units, conversion factors, 562
Worst-case scenario, 159, 160, 194, 364–365
XP (explosion-proof) areas, 339–340
Xylene, 102–103
autoignition temperature (AIT), 566
boiling point, 440
EEGL values, 204
energy of explosion, 566
flammability limits, 566
material factor (MF), 440
properties for electrostatic calculations, 314
TLV-TWA and PEL values, 58
Zinc dust, St classes and combustion data, 262