Index

A

A/B testing, 284

acronyms, 49

action-oriented learning, 167

activities

in CCAF model, 186, 189–191

follow-up, 191

group, 146

recall, 102–105, 165, 190

recognition, 102, 104, 105, 106, 165, 190

tactile, 153–154

Adobe Illustrator, 264

Allen, Michael, 186

analogies, 50

Anderson & Krathwohl taxonomy, 67

apprenticeship programs, 249

Ariely, Dan, 156

Articulate Software, 252

assessment. See evaluation

attention, 123–160

attracting, 131–132, 158

curiosity and, 143–144

and elephant vs. rider analogy, 124–127

maintaining, 85, 158, 159

storytelling and, 132–138

summary points about, 158–159

surprises and, 140–143

unexpected rewards and, 140–142

visuals and, 149–153

attention span, 173

attitude gaps, 73

audience analysis, 55–57

augmented reality, 263

automatic processes, 11

automaticity, 233–234

autonomy, 39, 40, 58, 158, 231, 241

B

Be Less Helpful philosophy, 144

behavior change

diffusions of innovation and, 219–220

environment and, 16, 266–270

modeling and practice for, 222–224

reinforcing, 227

self-efficacy and, 222–224

social proof and, 224–226

technology acceptance model and, 218–219

visceral matters and, 226–227

behavior triggers, 153

bike riding, 11–12

Bingham, Tony, 245

blended learning, 191

Bloom’s Taxonomy, 67–68

Bozarth, Jane, 243, 250

brain

closet analogy, 47–48, 82–83

as elephant and rider, 125–126

memory and, 82–83

neuroenergetic theory and, 153

new learning and, 197–198

Brand, Stewart, 74–75

Brinkerhoff, Robert, 285

Britz, Mark, 243

budgeting example, 247–253

C

case studies, 285–286

CCAF model, 186–193, 207

challenges, 73, 186, 189

changing behavior. See behavior change

characters in stories, 110

chunking information, 89, 90, 91, 120

Cialdini, Robert, 147

closet analogy, 47–50, 82–83, 92–95, 152

coaching, 208–209, 249

cognitive dissonance, 142–143

cognitive load, 142, 166

collaborative learning, 146–147

communication gaps, 17–19, 20, 73

communities of practice, 252

Community Building for the Web (Kim), 253

competence, 69, 70, 134, 198, 206

competition, 146, 148, 159

complexity, 39, 43, 219, 220, 232, 246

comprehension, 69

conditioned memory, 108, 111–113

confidence, learner, 185–186, 193

Conner, Marcia, 245

conscious action, 69, 70

conscious effort, 69

consequences, 138

consistency, 85, 141–142, 281–282

content. See also information

complexity of, 39

embedding in memory, 161

having learners rate, 163

for novices vs. experts, 40–42, 48

organizing, 254

providing right amount of, 172–174, 273

testing, 174

varying feedback based on, 85

context

in CCAF model, 186, 187–188

determining, 187–188

emotional, 98–101, 121, 138–139, 152, 187–188, 191

for habits, 236

physical, 188

providing learners with, 44–46

simulating, 96

visuals for providing, 45, 152–153

contextual triggers, 56, 153

counter-examples, 175–176, 193

Covey, Stephen, 136

CPR training, 102–105

Cross, Jay, 244

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 200, 213

curation skills, 254, 255

curiosity, 131, 143–144

D

Damasio, Antonio, 139

Deci, Edward, 31–32

decision trees, 262

declarative memory, 108

decorative graphics, 150

demographics, 28, 58

Design of Everyday Things (Norman), 258

desirable difficulty, 166

destinations

motivation gaps and, 8

setting, 60, 63–67

Deterding, Sebastian, 211

Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers), 219

dilemmas, 138

directions

communicating, 17–19

having gaps in, 185

step-by-step, 177–178, 181, 184

dissonance, 142–143

distractions, 123, 150, 159

Don’t Make Me Think (Krug), 275

doodling, 153

Drive (Pink), 157

Duarte, Nancy, 174

Duhigg, Charles, 231

dummy books, 35

Dweck, Carol, 221

E

elearning

authoring software, 252

blog, 180

and CCAF model, 186

feedback for designer of, 57

habituation and, 85

instructional design workshops for, 254

interactivity and, 52, 166

learner feedback and, 85, 141–142, 167, 192

multiple-choice question and, 102

scenarios, 13, 189–190, 191

Elearningheroes.com, 252

elephant-and-rider analogy, 124–127, 216–217

emotional context, 98–101, 121, 138–139, 152, 187–188, 191

Emotional Design (Norman), 150

emotional resonance, 138–140

encoding and retrieval, 82–83, 101–105, 120

entertaining learners, 174

envelope-icon tutorial, 180–181, 185

environment, 257–270

behaviors in, 266–270

habits and, 232

knowledge in, 258–259

prompts/triggers in, 265–266

proximity and, 260–261

putting resources into, 261–264

reducing complexity of, 43

summary points about, 270

supply caching in, 263–264

environment gaps, 15–17, 20, 73, 257–258

episodic memory, 108, 109–111

evaluation, 271–286

challenges, 271–272

of digital resources, 274–275

feedback, 279–280

Kirkpatrick levels of, 275, 283

measurement issues, 272–273

of performance, 279

recognition vs. recall, 277–280

summary points about, 286

surveys and, 275–276

through observation, 284–285

via interviews and case studies, 285–286

examples, 173–176, 181–183, 193

experience filter, 50–51

experiential learning, 216–217, 227, 250

experts

leveraging, 41

mental model for, 47–48

problem-solving by, 50

tailoring learning for, 40

as teachers of novices, 50

explicit memory, 107

explicit rules, 182

extraneous cognitive load, 167

extrinsic rewards, 156, 159

extrinsically motivated learners, 30–32, 33, 34

F

Facebook, 250

familiarization, 69, 191

fast vs. slow skills, 76–78

feedback

in CCAF model, 186, 192–193, 207

coaching, 193

consistency, 141–142, 281–282

in elearning scenario, 192

evaluation, 279–280

following up on, 208–209

frequency of, 207

habits and, 231–232, 239

for learning designer, 57

peer-to-peer, 280

on skill development, 207–209

variety of, 208

Ferguson, Dave, 262

field assessment system, 203

First Things Fast (Rossett), 54

flashbulb memory, 108, 115–117

flow model, 200, 213, 214

focusing objective, 72

Fogg, BJ, 231, 238

follow-up

coaching, 208–209

for evaluations, 273

to support learned behaviors, 191, 203, 204, 240

font study, 10

formal learning, 244, 246–247, 252, 255

framework

for knowledge, 162

for stories, 110

French, Bill, 250

friction, 166–167, 171, 193

G

games, 210–212

gaps in learners, 2–26

analyzing, 73

identifying, 2–4, 20–24

importance of understanding, 24–25

scenarios about, 3–4, 21–25

summary points about, 26

types of, 4–20

Gardner, Howard, 53

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, 53

Gee, James Paul, 210

germane cognitive load, 166, 167

Gery, Gloria, 69

giving directions, 176–178

GMAT prep class, 73–74, 75

goals, 59–79

for budget project, 247–253

communicating, 70–73

defining, 59, 63–67, 79

gaps related to, 73

learner proficiency and, 69–70, 79

learner sophistication and, 67–68, 79

solutions pertaining to, 60–63

and speed of skill acquisition, 73–78

structured flow of, 211–213

summary points about, 79

Gollwitzer, Peter, 237, 265

Goofus and Gallant, 175

Google Analytics, 285

GPS devices, 178

group activities, 146

guiding learners, 176–180, 193

H

habit gaps, 14, 20, 73, 234–237

habits, 229–242

anatomy of, 231–232

automaticity and, 233–234

autonomy and, 241

context and triggers for, 236

defined, 229

designing for, 237–238

developing new, 228

environment and, 232

feedback and, 239

implementation intentions and, 237–238

motivation and, 231

practice and, 239

shrinking, 238–239

summary points about, 241

unlearning, 11

vs. procedures/skills, 234

habituation, 84–85, 118, 120

Haidt, Jonathan, 124

handwashing training, 222, 265, 285

Happiness Hypothesis (Haidt), 124

Heath, Chip and Dan, 110, 174, 238

heroes, 134–136

Highlights magazine, 175

hiring skill, 78

How Buildings Learn (Brand), 74–75

Show Your Work: The Payoffs and How-to’s of Working Out Loud (Bozarth), 250

humor, 131, 149, 154, 155

hyperbolic discounting, 130

hypothetical problems, 33

I

Illustrator, Adobe, 264

immediacy, 136, 138, 153, 217

implementation intentions, 237–238, 240, 265

in-context learning, 95–97

Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (Cialdini), 147

infographics, 150

informal learning, 243–256

balancing with formal learning, 246

components of, 245

defined, 244–245

example, 247–253

summary points about, 255

tools, 252, 254

information. See also content

caching, 263–264

chunking, 89, 90, 91, 120

filtering, 254

organization of, 47–48

retrieving, 48

structuring, 48–50, 199–200

visual vs. verbal, 151

innovations, diffusion of, 219–220

instructional-design objective, 72

instructional-evaluation objective, 72

intelligence quotient (IQ), 53, 54

Intelligences, Gardner’s Multiple, 53

interactive learning, 52, 58, 166, 174

interviews, 56, 285–286

intrinsic cognitive load, 167

intrinsic rewards, 157–158, 159

intrinsically motivated learners, 30, 32–33

IQ (intelligence quotient), 53, 54

J

job aids, 191, 248, 261–263, 268

job shadowing, 56, 203

journey of learners, 1–2, 73–74

just-in-time learning, 131, 158

just-in-time resources, 248

K

Kim, Amy Jo, 253

Kirkpatrick levels of evaluation, 275, 283

knowledge, 161–194

friction and, 166–167, 171

guidance and, 176–180

listing existing, 162

metacognition and, 162

real vs. perceived, 105–106

sharing, 250

showing vs. telling, 167–170

stickiness of, 164–165

summary points about, 193

of teacher vs. student, 46–47

understanding and, 171–172

vs. skill, 7

in the world, 258–259

knowledge gaps, 4–6, 20, 73

Kohn, Alfie, 157

Kolb, David A., 53

Krathwohl, David, 67

Krug, Steve, 275

Kuhlmann, Tom, 180, 252

L

L1 interference, 13

language learning, 70

learners

attracting/engaging, 36, 131–132

average attention span for, 173

and elephant vs. rider analogy, 128–130

entertaining, 174

experience filter in, 50–51

gaps in, 2–26

giving feedback to, 192–193

guiding, 176–180

journey of, 1–2, 73–74

learning about, 54–57

maintaining interest of, 174

misconceptions of, 174–176

motivations of, 10, 28–34

pace layering of, 75

preferences of, 36–37

proficiency of, 69–70, 79

providing context for, 44–46

respecting, 43

skill level of, 37–40

sophistication of, 67–68, 70, 79

summary points about, 58

talking to, 55–56

types of, 29–30

learning

action-oriented, 167

applying to real world, 180–182

blended, 191

collaborative, 146–147

communities, 252, 253, 255

design (See learning design)

evaluating (See evaluation)

from experience, 216–217

fast vs. slow skills, 76–78

filtering of, 50–51

formal, 244, 246–247, 252, 255

gaps in, 2–4

in-context, 95–97

informal (See informal learning)

interactive, 52, 58, 166, 174

in lecture classroom, 51–52

memory as foundation of, 81

new procedures, 13

objectives (See learning objectives)

problem-based, 162–163

the right things, 260

scaffolding, 42–43

social (See social learning)

structuring, 48–50, 199–200, 210–213

styles, 53–54

vs. unlearning, 11

learning design

evaluating, 57, 272–273

habits and, 240–241

sensory memory and, 85–86

short-term memory and, 90–91

testing, 57

learning objectives

communicating, 70–71

creating, 62–67

performance evaluation and, 282–283

taxonomy of, 72

learning-style inventories, 53

lectures, 51–52

Lego experiment, 156–157

Loewenstein, George, 143

long-term memory

chunking and, 89

closet analogy and, 92–95

defined, 83

emotionally-charged events and, 116

friction and, 166

gatekeeper for, 91

memorization and, 121

organization of, 120

practice and, 196

repetition and, 121

retrieving information from, 86

vs. other types, 107

M

Made to Stick (Heath), 110, 174

Malamed, Connie, 150

management

project, 78, 247, 252

time, 235–236, 239

Mason, Charlotte, 145

memorization, 119–120, 121

memory, 81–121

encoding and retrieval, 82–83, 101–105, 120

as foundation of learning, 81

learning design and, 90–91

long-term (See long-term memory)

processing of, 107

repetition and, 117–120, 121

sensory, 83, 84–86

short-term, 83, 86–91

summary points about, 120–121

taking burden off, 258–259

types of, 83, 107–117, 121

working, 86–91, 120, 164

mental models, 47–48

mentoring, 226, 245, 246, 247, 249, 255

metacognition, 162, 193

metaphors, 50, 150

Meyer, Dan, 36, 144

miscommunication, 18

misconceptions, learner, 174–176

MIT Media Lab, 146

mnemonic devices, 49

momentum, learner, 11

monkey mind, 153

Moore, Cathy, 167

motivation, 215–228

competition as, 148

continuum of, 31–32

habits and, 231

intrinsic vs. extrinsic, 30–34

self-efficacy and, 220–224

social proof and, 224–226

summary points about, 227–228

technology acceptance model and, 218–219

types of, 215, 227

using rewards for, 157–158

visceral matters and, 226–227

motivation gaps, 8–11

defined, 8

and learning objectives, 73

questions to ask about, 20

reasons for, 8–10

unlearning as special, 11

multiple-choice tests, 42, 102, 271–272, 278, 283, 286

muscle memory, 114

mystery, 144

N

neuroenergetic theory, 153

New Social Learning (Conner/Bingham), 245

Non-Designer’s Design Book (Williams), 67, 150

Norman, Donald, 150, 258–259

novices

closet analogy and, 48–50

designing learning experience for, 40–42

experience filter and, 50–51

understanding skill level of, 37–40

numeric data, 151

O

objective facts, 140

objectives. See learning objectives

observation, 284–285, 286

opinion leaders, 225, 226, 228

P

pace layering, 74–75

pain points, 33

passive experiences, 166

peer pressure, 220

peer-to-peer feedback, 280, 286

Perfect Time-Based Productivity (Wade), 235, 239

performance objective, 72

performance-based evaluation, 279, 286

personal learning networks (PLNs), 245, 254, 255

persuasion, 147

physical context, 188

pilot tests, 57, 86

Pink, Daniel, 157

PLNs (personal learning networks), 245, 254, 255

Power of Habit (Duhigg), 231

PowerPoint, 180, 190

practice, 196–206

characteristics of effective, 200

communities of, 252

habits and, 232, 239

modeling and, 222–224

providing opportunities for, 185

skill development through, 6–7, 196–206

spacing out, 204–205

structuring, 198–200, 202–203

variables influencing amount of, 206

praise, 98, 221

presentation skills, 282

Presentation Zen (Reynolds), 174

pressure, 100–101, 220

pre-tests, 41–42

problem identification, 60–63

problem-based learning, 162–163

problem-solving skills, 74, 76

procedural memory, 108, 113–115

procedures, learning new, 13

proficiency, 11, 12, 39, 69, 79, 196

proficiency scales, 69–70

progression, 39, 68, 150

Project ALERT, 26, 222, 225

project-management skills, 78, 247, 252

prompts, 265–266

prototypes, 57, 190

proximity, 260–261, 262

pull vs. push, 41, 50

Punished by Rewards (Kohn), 157

Q

questions

about evaluation, 272–273

about motivation gaps, 20

about timing of rewards, 130

for engaging learners, 145

for identifying habit gaps, 236–237

for identifying learning gaps, 20–21

for identifying problems, 62

for learning about learners, 28, 56

R

Rapid E-Learning Blog, 180

rational decision-making, 139

real vs. perceived knowledge, 105–106

recall activities, 102–105, 165, 190, 277–278

recall-based evaluation, 277–278, 286

recognition activities, 102, 104, 105, 106, 165, 190

recognition-based evaluation, 277–278, 279–280

references, 16, 43, 268. See also resources

reinforcement, 118

remembering, 82, 102, 161. See also memory

repetition, 87, 117–120, 121, 232

resistance self-efficacy, 220

Resonate (Duarte), 174

resources

examples of, 248, 261–264

testing, 274–275

vs. formal courses, 248

retention, memory, 86–88, 120

retrieving information, 82, 101–105, 106, 120

rewards

as motivators, 157–158

pros and cons of, 155–157

timing of, 130, 155–156

unexpected, 140–142

Reynolds, Garr, 174

rider vs. elephant analogy, 124–127

Rocket Surgery Made Easy (Krug), 275

Rogers, Everett, 219

role-plays, 98, 100, 191, 192, 206, 246

Rossett, Allison, 54, 261

rubrics, 281, 286

rules, explicit vs. tacit, 182

Ryan, Richard, 31–32

S

Saari, Donald, 186

scaffolding, 42–43

scenarios

communicating learning objectives via, 73

gathering details for, 57

for in-context learning experiences, 97–98

for showing vs. telling, 169–170

self-control, 129

self-determination theory, 31–32

self-efficacy, 220–224, 228

self-evaluation, 280, 286

semantic memory, 108

sensory memory, 83, 84–86

sequential events, 110

shadowing, job, 56

shiny things, 149–153

short-term memory, 83, 86–91. See also memory

Show Your Work (Bozarth), 243, 250

showing vs. telling, 137, 167–170, 193

skill levels

accommodating different, 40–42

assessing, 41–42

identifying, 37–40

skills, 195–214

accomplishing tasks with, 209–210

fast vs. slow, 76–78

feedback on, 207–209

practicing, 196–206

summary points about, 214

teaching vs. introducing, 195

transferring to real world, 180–182

using games to build, 210–212

vs. habits, 234

vs. knowledge, 7

skills gaps, 6–7, 20, 73

slow vs. fast skills, 76–78

social interaction, 146, 159, 171, 193

social learning, 243–256

balancing formal and informal, 246

components of, 245

defined, 244–245

example, 247–253

summary points about, 255

tools, 252, 254

social networks, 247, 253, 254

social proof, 147–148, 224–226

sophistication of learners, 67–68, 70, 79

statistics, 32, 34

step-by-step directions, 177–178, 181, 184

stories, 49, 101, 110, 132–140

storytelling, 110–111, 121, 137

study habits, 146

Success Case Method (Brinkerhoff), 285

supply caching, 263–264

surprises, 140–144

surveys, 275–276, 286

Sweller, John, 166

Switch (Heath), 238

T

tacit memory, 107

tacit rules, 182

tactile activities, 153–154

TAM (technology acceptance model), 218–219, 220

tax software, 264

taxonomy

of learner sophistication, 67–68

of learning objectives, 72

technology acceptance model (TAM), 218–219, 220

telling vs. showing, 137, 167–170

test construction, 276

testing

A/B, 284

content, 174

recall- vs. recognition-based, 277–278

resources, 274–275

user, 57, 86, 275

tests, 41–42, 57, 86. See also evaluation; multiple-choice tests

texting while driving, 215, 217

Thalheimer, Will, 72

time management, 235–236, 239

Tiny Habits program, 238

tire-changing instructions, 45–46

Treisman, Philip Uri, 146–147

triggers

behavior, 153

contextual, 56, 153, 188

in environment, 265–266

habit, 231, 236, 241

troubleshooting, 184, 251

tunnel vision, 57

Twitter, 244, 252, 253, 254, 255

U

unconscious competence, 69–70

understanding

defining, 63–64

helping learners with, 171–172

unexpected rewards, 140–142

unlearning process, 11

urgency, 136–138, 148

usability.gov, 275

user testing, 57, 86, 275

V

“vampire” energy use, 153

VAK or VARK model, 53

virtual-reality experiment, 146

visceral matters, 226–227

visual clichés, 150

visual cues, 159, 208

Visual Design Solutions (Malamed), 150

visual learners, 53, 151

visual organizers, 152

visuals, 149–153

books about creating, 150

providing context with, 152–153

reasons for using, 150

for structuring information, 49

W

Wade, Francis, 235, 239

walkthroughs, 43, 190

What the Best College Teachers Do (Saari), 186

whiteboard, 163, 270

Williams, Robin, 67, 150

willpower, 129

Woods, Tiger, 11

working memory, 86–91, 120, 164. See also memory

Y

YouTube videos, 250