Embodiment and Well-Being

Embodiment is important to positive psychology for two major reasons. First, the body and its physical state can have a significant effect on shaping our emotions, and second, the body plays an important role during social interactions and the perceived quality of relationships. We know this from the burgeoning field of embodied cognition that aims to assess how cognition is influenced by bodily states, actions, and the environment (Kontra et al., 2012) as well as how the perception of and thought processing of emotions involves “perceptual, somato-visceral and motor re-experiencing (collectively referred to as embodiment) of the relevant emotion in one's self” (Niedenthal, 2007, p. 1002). Thus, a significant amount of focus targets how people's body state (temperature, position, gestures, facial expressions) affects how they interpret their social and personal surroundings (e.g., interaction with others, emotions, etc.; Vacharkulksemsuk & Fredrickson, 2012).

To be sure, the area of hedonic well-being focuses heavily on the experience of positive emotions and their role in the pleasurable life (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). From the current research, there is evidence to support the role of the body (postures, gestures, and facial expressions) directly affecting the experience of positive mood, feelings of success, and achievement (Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988) as well as anger (Chandler & Schwartz, 2009) and guilt (Rotella & Richeson, 2013; see Barsalou, Niedenthal, Barbey, & Ruppert, 2003). For example, manipulations of back posture during lab experiments (slumped versus straight) subsequently affected the interpretation of achievement scores such that individuals manipulated into straight condition reported better moods and more pride in their achievements than peers within the slumped category (Stepper & Strack, 1993). Researchers have also studied the links between physical and moral cleanliness (physical purity), with the act of washing one's hands reducing feelings of guilt and intensity of moral judgments (Schnall, Benton, & Harvey, 2008; Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006). Furthermore, embodiment can also influence the perception of duration of emotional experiences, such that individuals who are free to spontaneously imitate other persons' facial expressions (angry and happy) overestimate the duration of exposure to the stimuli relative to neutral stimuli (Effron, Niedenthal, Gil, & Droit-Volet, 2006).

The same embodied connections have been linked to simply thinking about emotions, such that when one is engaging in a task exposed to words that have direct and indirect associations with emotions, there is an immediate evoked embodied response within associated muscles, influencing subsequent personal judgments (Niedenthal, 2007; Niedenthal, Winkielman, Mondillon, & Vermeulen, 2009). The researchers argue that using stored emotional information requires embodiment. Furthermore, Foroni & Semin (2009) found increased activation in facial muscles when individuals read actions words for positive emotional expressions (e.g., smile) versus nonaction words (e.g., funny). These and several other body manipulation/emotion tasks have supported the argument that body states can have an influence on the subsequent attention and interpretation of emotions (Niedenthal, 2007).

Embodiment and Intrapersonal Relationships

Body awareness is one of the key components to embodiment and refers to one's ability to correctly and confidently identify and engage with body sensations as well as link these sensations to emotions (Mehling et al., 2009). Although an overlooked area in positive psychology, the importance of body awareness has been touted across several domains and should be an additional component to the flourishing agenda. Body awareness can be broken down into four dimensions, including perceived body sensation (ability to correctly identify sensations); attention quality (willingness to engage with these sensations versus overlook them); attitude (level of trust in correct identification of sensations and use of these for adaptive future decision making); and mind–body integration (level of connection between sensations and emotions and overall embodiment; Mehling et al., 2009). Currently, the Body Awareness Questionnaire (BAQ; Shields, Mallory, & Simon, 1989) is the most widely used measurement tool within research and practice. Another tool is the Body Intelligence Scale (BIS), which aims to measure three different forms of body awareness (energy, comfort, and inner) that potentially contribute to wellness (Anderson, 2006).

Traditionally, heightened body awareness and identification of bodily sensations has been associated with maladaptive functioning within chronic physical and mental illness (e.g., pain, depression, eating disorders; Mehling et al., 2009, 2011). Despite an earlier pathological focus on body awareness, a new wave of research indicates the benefits of body awareness in relation to both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Anderson, 2006; Mehling et al., 2009). For example, Brani, Hefferon, Lomas, Ivtzan, and Painter (in press) found a predictive relationship between individuals' self-reported body awareness and subjective well-being (SWB; Diener et al., 1999) within the normal population. This was one of the first findings that suggested that individuals could benefit from becoming more body aware as a potential route to SWB.

From a more eudaimonic perspective, research has shown a link between trauma, the realization of mortality, and heighted body awareness (Frank, 2002; Meier et al., 2012). For example, my own work into embodiment and posttraumatic growth (PTG) has shown that the body plays an important role in the process and facilitation of PTG (Hefferon, 2012, 2013; Hefferon, Grealy, & Mutrie, 2008–2010). PTG is the notion that through the struggle of adversity people may change in ways that propel them to higher levels of functioning (psychological, physical) than existed before the event occurred. Survivors can express several notable changes, including perceived changes in self; improved relationships; changed life philosophy with increased existential awareness; changed priorities; and enhanced spiritual beliefs (Calhoun, Tedeschi, Cann, & Hanks, 2010; see also Tedeschi, Calhoun, & Groleau, Chapter 30, this volume). Research shows that illness and physical trauma can lead to more corporeal awareness and the elimination of the taken-for-granted body (Frank, 1995; Hefferon, 2012; Hefferon et al., 2009, 2010). These corporeal circumstances can enable us to become more embodied and aware of our physical, psychological, and spiritual existence and awaken us to the here and now (Burkeman, 2012; Yalom, 2008). The mission for positive psychology is to learn how we can help individuals live more below their shoulders on an everyday basis, not only when trauma and illness occur.

In terms of future research and practice, positive psychologists could start to include measurement tools such as the BAQ (Shields, Mallory, & Simon, 1989) or BIS (Anderson, 2006) when researching interventions, (e.g., mindfulness meditation, yoga, etc.) as the development of interoceptive body awareness has been shown to improve via meditative practices (Mehling et al., 2009; Siegel, 2010). Similarly, those working in more therapeutic environments can take heed from practices such as body psychotherapy, which literally uses the body as a tool within its sessions, engaging in somatic exercises and encouraging the reconnection of body and mind.

Positive Body Image: A New Frontier for Positive Psychology

There is one relationship that can arguably impact our well-being the most, and that is the relationship we have with our body (Cash & Smolak, 2011). This intrapersonal relationship (a.k.a. personal body image) is a notoriously complex construct that encompasses “self-perceptions and attitudes (i.e. thoughts feelings and behaviours) with regards to the body” (Avalos, Tylka, & Wood-Barcalow, 2005, p. 285) as well as “how people experience their own embodiment” (Cash, 2008, p. 1). Body image consists of several dimensions, including:

1. Perceptual—how the body is pictured in one's own mind.
2. Affective—the feelings one has about the body's appearance and function (pride and happiness vs. anxiety and shame).
3. Cognitive—attitudes and thoughts about one's body (value placed on image and investment in appearance).
4. Behavioral—how one displays outwardly his or her relationship with his or her body (e.g., revealing clothes).
5. Subjective satisfaction—one's overall and specific satisfaction with her or his body and body parts (Martin-Ginis, Bassett, & Conlin, 2012).

Historically, the area of body image research has taken a pathological approach, focusing on the alleviation of body dissatisfaction. Through decades of study, there is strong evidence to link the presence of a negative body image with increased incidences of eating disorders, higher rates of depression, negative affect, social anxiety, lower confidence in relationships, and lower overall psychological well-being (Avalos et al., 2005; Swami, Begum, & Petrides, 2010).

Despite this previous pathological preoccupation, body image has been found to have both negative and positive features, and the absence of a negative body image does not necessitate a positive body image (Tylka, 2011). For example, not hating your body is not the same as “appreciating, respecting, celebrating and honouring the body” (Tylka, 2011, p. 63). Williams, Cash, and Santos (2004) further demonstrated that body image could be divided into three types—negative, positive, and neutral—with those displaying higher levels of PBI reporting higher levels of psychological and social well-being (e.g., optimism, self-esteem, and adaptive coping). Ultimately, a PBI begins with love and respect for the body. From this foundation, individuals can begin to appreciate the uniqueness of their body and its functionality. PBI is about (1) accepting the body and all its imperfections; (2) being aware of and focusing on assets of the body rather than on the negatives (protective filtering); (3) having a mindful connection with the body and the body's needs; (4) making a conscious effort to absorb positive information and reject or reframe negative information (Tylka, 2011; Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, & Augustus-Horvath, 2010); and (5) feeling “beautiful, comfortable, confident and happy with their body” (Tylka, 2011, p. 58). Ultimately, people with a PBI are in tune with and mindful of their body's needs, listen to and respect their own bodies, and take care of them when needed.

There are several preconditions that have been identified as facilitators of PBI (Tylka, 2011), including (a) the experience of unconditional acceptance of who they are from loved ones; (b) a comprehension of media images (photo-shopping, lighting, etc.); (c) environments or cultures that broadly define beauty; (d) a belief in a higher power that creates all to be unique; and (e) surrounding themselves in a social circle that also has a PBI (Wood-Barcalow et al., 2010). The body appreciation scale (BAS) was developed to measure PBI and encompasses the aforementioned conditions, as well as including several other components, such as “(a) favourable opinions of the body (regardless of actual physical appearance); (b) acceptance of the body in spite of weight, body shape and imperfections; (c) respect of the body by attending to its needs and engaging in healthy behaviours; and (d) protection of the body by rejecting unrealistic body image portrayed in the media” (Avalos et al., 2005, p. 286). For young adolescents, PBI has been characterized by a functional view of the body and acceptance of imperfections as well as engagement in physical activity for the purpose of experiencing positive emotions and health benefits (Frisén & Holmqvist, 2010). Further inquiry by the same researchers found that adolescents who expressed having a PBI viewed appearance ideals via the media with criticality, as well as holding a flexible view of beauty (Holmqvist & Frisén, 2012).

Individuals with higher levels of PBI have been found to report several positive outcomes, such as intuitive eating, higher levels of self-esteem and optimism, adaptive coping, and better sexual functioning (Tiggemann & McCourt, 2013; Williams et al., 2004). However, as the area is very new, the research has predominantly been restricted to younger, female populations. Thus, there have been mixed and inconsistent results regarding gender differences within PBI as well as the degree to which ethnicity and culture can influence PBI (Swami, Hadji-Michael, & Furnham, 2008; Webb, Warren-Findlow, Chou, & Adams, 2013).

Promoting Positive Body Image

Whilst recognizing that this area of research is still in its infancy, there are current suggestions from researchers on how to promote PBI within young adolescent and young adult populations. Ideally, successful programs should include a media literacy approach, where adolescents are taught lessons surrounding the tricks of the trade within media advertising, including airbrushing, photoshopping, external supports (e.g., tape, bras), and so on, as well as promoting critical discussion behind the motives of the media agencies. PBI programs can also consider using a feminist approach to ideals by providing adolescents with alternatives to the ideals of media advertising in order to enable a more flexible perception of beauty. This would also help adolescents to challenge the sexual objectification of the body and promote engagement in nonobjectifying activities (e.g., physical activity, yoga). Finally, administrators could include a focus on ways to enhance self-esteem and body image (including acceptance of weight and body shape) as well as strategies for healthy eating and exercise (McVey et al., 2010). Physical activity is also a fantastic way to become more embodied, increase positive body image, and enhance our subjective and psychological well-being (see Faulkner, Hefferon, & Mutrie, Chapter 12, this volume).

Within therapeutic environments, therapists can help individuals to not only eliminate their negative body image, but also enhance their positive body image via supporting the use of “protective filtering, interpersonal support, associating with and modelling others who are proud of their body and embracing an inclusive definition of beauty” (Tylka, 2011, p. 61). Furthermore, therapists should suggest activities that promote embodiment, body functionality, and body acceptance such as yoga or physical activity (LePage & Crowther, 2010; Tylka, 2011). It is important to note that people can still have bad body image days where they internalize negative information; however, it can be recorrected via the aforementioned facilities, particularly by reframing negative information.

As a final point, the future research between positive psychology and PBI is rife with possibility. For example, Swami et al. (2010) found a significant relationship between trait emotional intelligence (EI) scores and body appreciation in undergraduate females. More specifically, they found that the well-being factor (self-esteem, positive outlook, and subjective happiness) within the trait EI measurement tool significantly predicted body appreciation scores and actual-ideal weight discrepancy, suggesting that enhancing well-being may also enhance body appreciation. Furthermore, researchers could also employ the use of positive psychological interventions (PPIs; Sin & Lyubomirksy, 2009) to enhance PBI. For example, Geraghty, Wood, and Hyland (2010) found that the use of a daily gratitude diary for 2 weeks was as effective as the treatment as usual (monitoring and reframing) group in decreasing body dissatisfaction. Future research could test different PPIs or contextualize the PPIs to focus on enhancing PBI rather than simply decreasing body dissatisfaction. Finally, Avalos et al. (2005) affirm that the PBI area would benefit from investigation into specific character strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) that prevent body image disturbances and/or promote body appreciation.

Embodiment and Interpersonal Relationships

Not only are our bodies important for our intrapersonal relationships, they are crucial for creating and maintaining interpersonal connections. Over the past decade, one of the strongest findings from positive psychology is the relationship between social support, health, and overall well-being (Vacharkulksemsuk & Fredrickson, 2012). This connection has led to an increase in relationship science research (Fincham & Beach, 2010), which aims to understand how the quality of our interpersonal relationships (with both loved ones and strangers) influences our overall well-being. Embodied social cognition (e.g., simulation, mimicry, synchrony) enables us to not only think about what other humans might be thinking, but to actually experience their bodily states in order to give us a better insight into their intentions and needs (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2012). Embodied simulation is an area of research that claims that when we observe another carrying out actions, emotions, or even sensations (e.g., experiencing pain), the same associated bodily states are activated, creating an experience understanding of others (Gallese, 2006). For example, research has found that the same areas of the brain (anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex) are activated when an individual personally experiences a disgusting smell as well as when she or he watches another person experiencing such a smell (Wicker et al., 2003). By physically simulating the experience, it is argued that we are better able to understand the intentions of others and better able to take the perspective of the person we are observing, thereby increasing levels of empathy. We are also able to feel the pain or touch of others, simply by watching others have the experience. This connection derived via embodied simulation can therefore help with the connection between strangers and other individuals.

Rapport is another concept within relationship science that has been studied in order to understand quality of interactions; however, rapport as a bodily experience has been underrepresented. Embodied rapport is shared feelings not just shared feelings of positivity and mutuality, but of vitality and aliveness (which stem from shared movements; Vacharkulksemsuk & Fredrickson, 2012). Embodied rapport can be achieved via behavioral synchrony, defined as “coordination of movement that occurs between individuals during a social interaction, featuring similarity of (1) form, the manner and style of movements and (2) time, the temporal rhythm of movements” (Vacharkulksemsuk & Fredrickson, 2012, p. 399). Synchrony is an important feature of interaction as it can create a sense of oneness as well as compassion, cooperation affiliation, emotional support satisfaction, and even elevated pain thresholds (Niedenthal, 2007). Researchers have also found that behavioral synchrony can mediate the direct effect of self-disclosure among strangers and enhance interaction quality (Vacharkulksemsuk & Fredrickson, 2012).

One of the most recent (and embodied) progressions in the area of positive psychology and relationship science is Fredrickson's new theory on love and positivity resonance (Fredrickson, 2013). Following on from her early research into positive emotions, Fredrickson has ascertained that love is a supreme emotion (more so than gratitude, joy, etc.) and is vital for flourishing. Fredrickson's theory of love is not reflective of the mainstream understanding of love (e.g., as a committed, long-lasting bond between two people, usually spouses or family members or friends). Instead, Fredrickson proposes love from a bodily perspective—as an embodied way of being. Love is momentary experiences that change the physiological nature of the two individuals experiencing micro-moments. Love, therefore, consists of three elements:

1. “A sharing of one or more positive emotions between you and another.”
2. “A synchrony between you and the other person's biochemistry and behaviours.”
3. “A reflective motive to invest in each other's well being that brings mutual care” (Fredrickson, 2013, p. 17).

Together, these three events are coined as positivity resonance, where individuals mirror each other and deepen the interpersonal resonance. However, in order for positivity resonance to occur, there must exist several preconditions, including perception of safety and sensory and temporal connection.

In sum, this theory of love is an embodied perspective—one in which your body and another body are imperative for connection to occur. Fredrickson argues that talking on the telephone, e-mailing, or not being in the physical presence of the other person inhibits love from occurring. From an applied perspective, preliminary research findings have linked the effects of loving kindness meditation interventions to increased experiences of positive emotions and physical health (e.g., increased activation of the vagus nerve; Kok et al., 2013; Kok, Waugh, & Fredrickson, 2013). Ultimately, this new area is among the first positive psychological theories to prioritize the body as a main mechanism for well-being.