A psychological process of learning in which relevant schemas or mental models stored in long-term memory are brought into working memory for the purpose of integrating new instructional content to result in larger, more complex schema or mental models.

Instruction that matches content or instructional methods based on individual differences in learners. For example, a more experienced learner receives different lesson versions than a novice learner. Typically adaptive training is implemented in e-learning in which learners are assessed and branched to the appropriate instructional versions based on the assessment results. Also known as prescriptive learning.

Instructional programs delivered on a computer that are designed primarily for self-study. These programs can be taken at any time by any one at his or her own pace. May or may not include options for synchronous or asynchronous communication. Common examples include some web-based training and computer-based training.

A psychological process in which limited mental capacity is used more efficiently by focusing mental resources on relevant features in the environment.

The status of any knowledge or skill that has been used so many times that it can be activated from long-term memory and applied using minimal working memory resources. Some common examples of automated skills among educated adults include driving and reading.

An instructional technique in which an expanding number of steps in a worked example are left for the learner to complete starting from the last steps and working backwards. For example, a five-step example would begin with the first four steps worked out and the last step left for the learner to complete. A second five-step example would work out the first three steps, leaving the last two steps for the learner to complete. See also faded worked examples and completion examples.

A technique in which information in long-term memory is used to chunk or group together multiple elements of information into a single element that can be easily processed in working memory. Seeing the letters C.H.U.N.K.I.N.G. as a single word rather than eight letters provides an example.

A universal set of instructional principles and evidence-based guidelines that offer the most efficient methods to design and deliver instructional environments in ways that best utilize the limited capacity of working memory.

Instructional strategies that increase the probability of initiating or completing an instructional event as a result of making the instructional materials more relevant or comprehensible. Some examples include the use of an organizational visual to illustrate the relationships among topics or the inclusion of job-realistic case examples to illustrate application of new skills to the learner's work assignments.

Experiments in which participants are randomly assigned to two or more different lesson versions and outcomes are compared between the two groups. Also known as controlled experiments.

An instructional technique in which a step-by-step worked example is partially filled in by the instruction and finished by the learner. For example, an algebra problem example in a lesson demonstrates the first three steps and asks the learner to complete the last three steps. See also faded worked examples and backwards fading.

Instructional methods used to draw learner attention to elements in the visual instructional interface. Common examples include arrows, highlighting, and circles.

Instructional programs in which content is explicitly presented to learners in short lessons that typically include rules, examples, and practice with feedback.

When two instructional methods have opposite effects on two different types of learners. For example, worked examples benefit low prior knowledge learners but hinder learning of learners with greater expertise.

A theory that accounts for the beneficial effects of visuals on learning resulting from formation of two memory codes: one from words and a second from visual representation of content.

Any delivery medium in which the instruction is typically delivered outside of learner control of pacing. A central feature of dynamic delivery is that the content is presented in a transient manner. Some examples include video, classroom lectures, and multimedia animations.

An instructional approach in which themes, games, or vignettes are added to a technical lesson for the purpose of increasing emotional sources of motivation.

A statistic that indicates the practical significance of experimental outcome data. Effect sizes indicate the proportion of a standard deviation difference that would be realized if the control group learned from the experimental lesson version. Effect sizes of .5 and above indicate practical significance.

A property of instructional products that results in faster learning (or performance), better learning (or performance), or both. Technically an efficiency metric is calculated by subtracting the standardized (Z) average mental difficulty rating of an instructional product from the standardized (Z) average performance score realized after studying that product.

A two-dimensional diagram in which average performance Z scores are plotted on the vertical axis and average mental effort or program difficulty Z scores are plotted on the horizontal axis. The most efficient programs are those that fall into the upper left quadrant of the graphic, indicating programs that result in high performance with low mental effort.

A property of instructional content that reflects the extent to which multiple content components must be held and/or processed simultaneously in working memory in order to be learned or to achieve a performance objective. For example, learning some of the nouns of a foreign language vocabulary is a low element interactivity task because each word can be learned separately. In contrast, composing a sentence in a foreign language is a high element interactivity task because all words must be considered in relationship to each other and to grammar and parsing rules.

Instructional strategies that increase the probability of initiating or completing an instructional program as a result of making the materials more engaging or humorous through the use of themes, games, or stories that are not related to the instructional goal. See also edutainment.

A psychological process of learning resulting in storage of new instructional content in schema in long-term memory.

The incorporation of valid research evidence into decisions about selection or design of instructional programs. Such research is usually based on comparison or controlled group experiments.

The negative effect of instructional methods that aid the learning of novices on the learning of experts. Because experts have a relatively large schema relevant to the instructional goal, they are able to manage their own cognitive learning processes without external instructional support. In some cases instructional methods such as worked examples interfere with learning of experts because of conflict between the instruction and the existing schema of experts.

A diagram that illustrates relationships among content and helps learners build deeper understanding. Some examples include graphic expressions of quantitative data, concept maps, and schematic illustrations.

Instructional programs that allow a high degree of learner control over content and/or instructional methods, allowing learners to select the portions of the instruction they want to study.

Work imposed on working memory that uses mental capacity but does not contribute to learning. Extraneous sources of cognitive load should be minimized in order to free working memory for processes that lead to learning. Some examples of instructional methods that impose extraneous cognitive load include redundant expressions of content such as narrating text to learners or explaining a self-explanatory visual, as well as split attention caused by separating explanatory text from a related visual.

A technique in which a step-by-step example is partially filled in by the instruction and finished by the learner. For example, an algebra problem example in a lesson demonstrates the first three steps and asks the learner to complete the last three steps. See also completion examples and backwards fading of worked examples.

Knowledge and skills that must be applied in diverse contexts on the job. Some examples of far transfer tasks include making a sales presentation or designing training. To perform far transfer tasks, the worker must use judgment to adapt guidelines to diverse work situations. Also known as non-recurrent skills or principle-based tasks.

Work imposed on working memory that uses mental capacity in ways that contribute to learning. Germane sources of cognitive load should be used to build the mental models appropriate to the instructional goal. Examples include the use of varied context examples and practice exercises that result in more robust mental models than examples or practice exercises that use similar contexts.

Instructional programs in which learners are encouraged to explore an instructional environment but are also provided with a degree of guidance. Guided discovery courses will often rely on a job-realistic problem or case assignment as a vehicle to promote learning.

When two or more factors combine to provide a result different to either factor in isolation. Two instructional methods may have different or opposite effects on different learners. For example, instructional method X works well for novice learners but either has no effect or depresses learning of experienced learners.

Work imposed on working memory as a result of the amount of element interactivity of the content to be learned. Intrinsic cognitive load is high when multiple content elements must be processed simultaneously in working memory, such as when learning to compose a sentence in a foreign language or when learning a number of steps in using a spreadsheet. Intrinsic cognitive load is an inherent feature of the knowledge and skills to be trained, although it can be artificially reduced by instructional designers through chunking and sequencing of content.

The extent to which learners can select their own instructional pacing and/or content. Learner control may apply to pacing of the instruction and/or selection of content or instructional methods. Instructional programs may be high or low in learner control, depending on the delivery medium and their design. For example, classroom instruction is typically low in learner control because the pace and content are determined by the instructor.

A relatively permanent mental repository of knowledge and skills in the form of schema that provide the basis for expertise. The schemas in long-term memory interact directly with working memory to influence the virtual capacity of working memory.

A memory structure located in long-term memory that incorporates our knowledge and skills. Also known as schemas. Mental models can be larger or small and grow over time as learning progresses. Mental models are the basis for expertise.

A psychological process of learning in which new knowledge and skills are practiced in memory in ways that lead to learning.

A cognitive load principle stating that complex visuals are understood more efficiently when explanatory words are presented in an audio modality than when presented in a written modality. Because working memory includes separate processing areas for visual and auditory information, using the auditory mode along with the visual makes most efficient use of limited working memory resources.

Knowledge and skills that are applied in more or less the same way each time they are used. Refers to routine tasks such as logging into email or starting an automobile. In research studies, near transfer tests ask learners to demonstrate new skills in a similar context that they were presented in the instruction. Also called recurrent tasks or procedures.

External sources of content that aid workers to complete job tasks. They include low-technology support such as fact cards and high-technology support such as online help and wizards.

A component of working memory that is responsible for storage and processing primarily of auditory information.

Content that involves a series of steps to complete a task. Also known as near transfer or recurrent tasks. Includes routine tasks such as logging onto a computer or testing an electrical appliance.

Content that describes how things work. Can focus on activity flows in mechanical, scientific, and business systems. Some examples include how workers are hired or how the circulatory system works.

A testing technique based on cognitive load theory that allows rapid assessment of learner expertise followed by adaptive instruction based on that assessment. In rapid testing the learner is asked to quickly produce the next step he or she would take to solve a problem or complete a task. Because experts have more complete schemas, their next steps approximate a full solution, in contrast to novices, who either do not know the next step or produce a next step that represents an early stage in problem solution.

Instructional designs that include minimal learner interaction. Some examples include typical briefings, lectures, or text readings that do not include practice opportunities.

Skills that are based on routine steps common to a variety of situations. Also called procedures or near transfer tasks.

A cognitive load principle stating that content or content expressions that are duplications either of each other or of knowledge already in memory impede learning. Some examples include a text or audio explanation of a self-explanatory visual as well as an explanation of a visual presented with both text and a duplicate audio narration of that text. Frequently applied to any information presented that is irrelevant to schema acquisition.

An instructional program that is based on job reference materials in the form of manuals or working aids. Typically the training materials include learning objectives, explanations of supporting knowledge, examples, and exercises. Learners use the reference materials while completing exercises.

A psychological learning process in which new knowledge and skills are processed in working memory in ways that lead to learning. May include rote processing known as maintenance rehearsal or deeper processing known as elaborative rehearsal.

A graphic used for the purpose of illustrating the actual appearance of objects. Some examples include photographs of equipment, screen captures, or line drawings of people.

A psychological learning process in which relevant knowledge and skills stored in long-term memory are brought into working memory when needed to complete a mental or physical activity. Retrieval is the psychological basis for transfer of learning.

A memory structure located in long-term memory that is the basis for expertise. Allows the chunking of many elements of information into a single element. Schemas are also called mental models. Schemas can be large or small and grow over time as learning progresses.

Text or visual content added to instructional materials that is unrelated to the instructional goal in order to add emotional interest to the instruction. For example, pictures and descriptions of people injured by lightning strikes are irrelevant to a lesson designed to teach how lightning works. See also edutainment.

An instructional technique in which content is divided into segments and distributed over a series of instructional events such as topics or lessons in order to artificially reduce intrinsic cognitive load.

Mental processing of examples in which learners attempt to clarify or elaborate on an example presented in instruction. Effective self-explanations lead to better learning of knowledge or skills illustrated by the examples.

A popular phrase coined by George Miller in 1956 to characterize the limited capacity of working memory for information. This concept of seven plus or minus two has been updated in cognitive load theory with the guideline that working memory has a limited capacity of two to four elements during high element interactivity processing events.

Instructional techniques used to draw attention to important elements in the textual instructional interface. Common examples include bolding, highlighting, or italics.

A source of extraneous cognitive load caused by separation of related instructional elements that must be processed together for understanding. For example, split attention results when a visual is explained by text placed in a distant location from the visual, requiring the viewer to expend mental resources to integrate the two sources of information.

Research studies in which experimental lessons are presented to the same group of learners over time and outcome data collected several times as those learners gain expertise. Commonly used to evaluate the effects of instructional methods on differing levels of expertise. Commonly known as a repeated measures design.

A statistic that measures the degree of dispersion of data around the average of the data. Higher standard deviations reflect greater dispersion of data around the average. In most educational research, programs that result in lower standard deviations are more desirable, since they reflect greater consistency among the scores.

A statistical measure of the probability that the data outcomes did not occur by chance alone. Statistical significance is usually expressed as probabilities less than .05, meaning that there is less than a 5 percent likelihood the differences among experimental programs occurred by chance alone. Statistical significance is influenced by the size of the experimental population and does not necessarily indicate practical significance.

Instructional programs delivered on a computer that are designed for group participation in different locations at the same time. Typically, these programs are conducted by an instructor and are instructionally paced. Facilities of synchronous e-learning depend on the delivery software, but typically include a white board for visuals, chat, and polling options, as well as audio.

A series of step-by-step demonstrations in which the context changes. For example, one illustration of a statistical calculation uses typing scores, while another uses temperatures. Varied context worked examples impose a form of germane cognitive load that is beneficial for far-transfer learning of content such as concepts and principles.

A component of working memory responsible for processing of diagrams and pictures.

An instructional design strategy in which unnecessary content or redundant content modalities are eliminated in order to minimize extraneous cognitive load.

Instructional programs in which learning is designed to take place in the context of solving job-realistic problems or tasks. Also called problem-based learning or goal-based scenarios.

A step-by-step demonstration used to illustrate how to complete a task. Replacing some practice exercises with worked examples has been shown to increase learning efficiency.

A technique that decreases extraneous cognitive load by replacing some practice exercises with a series of worked examples, each followed by a similar practice exercise. The worked example-problem pairs technique has been shown to result in more efficient learning than all-practice lessons.

A central element of human cognition responsible for active processing of data during thinking, problem solving, and learning. Working memory has a limited capacity and storage duration for information. Cognitive load theory is a set of instructional principles designed to accommodate the limits and exploit the strengths of working memory.