190 Just ordinAry robots
in 2000, and $24 billion in 1982 (Schrank, Eisele, & Lomax, 2012).
More specically, the average commuter spent an extra 38hours/year
traveling in 2011, up from 16hours in 1982, and wasted 72 liters of
fuel per year in 2011—a week’s worth of fuel for the average U.S.
driver—up from 30 liters in 1982. e main reasons for this increase
are population growth, an increase in the number of people who are
employed, and increased car ownership.
5.2.3 Pollution
Climate change is one of the most pressing challenges our society faces
today and for the foreseeable future. is has led to the introduction of
regulations and innovative pollution-control approaches throughout
the world that have resulted in a reduction of exhaust emissions, par-
ticularly in developed countries (HEI Panel on the Health Eects of
Trac-Related Air Pollution, 2010). e EU has also acknowledged
the impact of a rising global temperature and is committed to reduc-
ing CO
2
emissions, which make up the largest part of greenhouse gas
emissions that cause climate change.* Road transportation contrib-
utes substantially to greenhouse gas emissions—especially CO
2
—air
pollution (including acidifying emissions and particulates oating in
the air) and noise. In the EU, road transportation accounts for almost
25% and 50% of man-made CO
2
and NO
X
emissions, respectively.
†
A
reduction is needed to meet the EU’s targets included in the Europe
2020 strategy. e European Commission sent a clear signal about
the role transportation will have to play by setting the sector an objec-
tive of reducing its CO
2
emissions by 60% by 2050 compared to 1990
levels (European Environment Agency, 2012). Although the EU is
generally moving in line with the “target path,” this does not mean
that transportation-related impacts are on a continued downward
trend every year. For example, transportation energy consumption
actually rose slightly in 2011 compared with 2010. So, substantial
opportunities for further eciency improvements remain.
*
http://www.etrera2020.eu/library/22-smart-green-and-integrated-transport/51-
towards-low-carbon-transport-in-europe.html.
†
http://ec.europa.eu/research/rtdinfo/en/25/05.html.
191who drives the CAr?
5.3 Driver Assistance Systems (Levels 1 and 2)
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) support the driver and
have been developed in order to improve comfort and safety in driv-
ing. ese systems do not allow for automated driving in trac, but
are a necessary step toward cooperative and autonomous driving. We
can distinguish ve types of driver assistance systems with respect to
their intended action: (1) controlling the vehicle, (2) preventing trac
violations, (3) supporting detecting and/or interpreting trac situa-
tions, (4) limiting injury in collisions, and (5) intervening in tempo-
rarily impaired driver capacity.
e application of driver assistance systems is developing rapidly,
especially because the expectations of these systems are running high
regarding safety eects. e driver assistance systems now available
are probably only harbingers of major developments that will lead to
a progressive automation of the driving task, perhaps even going so
far as to allow the driver to take their hands o the steering wheel
entirely: driving in an autonomous car (see Section 5.5). To get a pic-
ture of the applications and developments of driver assistance systems,
we will briey discuss some of these systems. e other driver assis-
tance systems mentioned in Table 5.1 are listed in Box 5.1 along with
a short explanation.
5.3.1 ABS and ESC
e ABS has become standard, and from 2008 it has been made
compulsory by the European Commission. ABS is one of the rst
Table 5.1 Driver Assistance Systems
FUNCTION DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS
Controlling the vehicle ABS, ESC, ACC, stop-and-go
Preventing trafc violations Drive alert, trafc sign recognition,
intelligent speed assistant
Supporting detecting and/or interpreting
trafc situations
Lane departing warning, park assist, blind
spot information system
Limiting injury in collisions Pedestrian and cyclist airbags, airbags
Intervening in temporarily impaired
driver capacity
Pre-crash, hill start assist, lane keeping
aid, intelligent speed authority
192 Just ordinAry robots
BOX 5.1 SOME COMMERCIAL
DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS
DRIVE ALERT
is system continuously analyzes the driver’s vigilance level by
monitoring direction and behavior. When the system detects
that the driver is losing attention, the driver is alerted by a warn-
ing signal and an additional visual warning sign.
TRAFFIC SIGN RECOGNITION
is system recognizes trac signs on the road, for example, “no
U-turn,” “speed limit,” “do not enter,” “wild animal warning,” or
“no overtaking.” e system shows these signs on the instrument
panel.
INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTION
A collective of any system that constantly monitors vehicle speed
and the local speed limit on a road and implements an action
when the vehicle is detected to be exceeding the speed limit.
is can be done through an advisory system, where the driver is
warned (intelligent speed assistant) often via built-in car naviga-
tion systems, or through an intervention system where the driv-
ing systems of the vehicle are controlled automatically to reduce
the vehicle’s speed (intelligent speed authority).
LANE DEPARTURE WARNING
AND LANE KEEPING AID
e lane departure warning alerts the driver via short vibration
pulses in the steering wheel and a warning light in the instru-
ment panel when the driver is about to veer o the road inad-
vertently. e lane keeping aid does not only warn the driver,
but, if no action is taken by the driver, automatically takes steps
to ensure the vehicle stays in its lane. In order to ignore the sys-
tem, the driver can steer quite sharply in the desired direction.
193who drives the CAr?
autonomous subsystems of commercial vehicles,* as it prevents the
wheels from locking during forceful braking, functioning indepen-
dently of the driver. A sensor in the wheels detects whether a wheel
is about to lock while braking. If that is about to happen, ABS takes
over and diminishes the braking force. When the actions of the ABS
end, the driver’s brake action is restored until the moment that the
wheels are about to lock again. Because of this technique, the wheels
maintain a continuous grip on the road surface and the vehicle can
be steered. e successor of ABS is electronic stability control, ESC.
In many cases, this security system will prevent slipping. When an
incipient slip movement starts, there are dierences between the
actual movement of the vehicle and the driver’s intention. In such
a situation, ESC will brake separate targeted wheels with the same
technique that is used by ABS. In addition to the wheel action, ESC
also often intervenes directly in the throttle. e gas supply—and
thus the power—is reduced, causing the vehicle to move more slowly,
and therefore, it becomes more manageable (Ferguson, 2007).
In 2009, the European Commission decided that as of November
2011, all new models of vehicles, both cars and lorries, must be
equipped with ESC, and from November 2014 this applies to
*
Automatic gear switching is probably the rst autonomous subsystem introduced in
the car.
BLIND SPOT INFORMATION SYSTEM
is system displays, through a light in the mirror, that a car is
situated in the driver’s blind spot.
PARK ASSIST
Via a sensor, this system detects an available parking space on
the left or right side of the road. e driver then only needs to
press the throttle and brake. e car steers itself into the avail-
able parking space.
HILL START ASSIST HSA
is system prevents the vehicle from rolling backward when it
is stationary on a slope and drives it o from a standstill.
194 Just ordinAry robots
all new vehicles sold, including existing models (Schwab, 2009).
e positive eect of ESC on the road is estimated to be high in
various studies. In particular, a large proportion of single vehicle
crashes with passenger cars, with only one vehicle moving, could
be prevented by ESC; according to some studies, this amounts to
between 30% and 62% of fatal single vehicle crashes (Erke, 2008;
Ferguson, 2007).
5.3.2 Adaptive Cruise Control and Stop-and-Go Systems
In 1997, Toyota introduced Adaptive Cruise Control or ACC. ACC
is an extension of the conventional cruise control systems. ACC
not only maintains the speed set by the driver, but also adjusts
the speed of the vehicle to that of the vehicle in front and helps to
maintain a preset travel time interval between one’s own car and
the vehicle just in front. ACC uses a radar or laser sensor on the
front of the vehicle to detect the vehicle ahead, monitors the vehi-
cle’s speed and distance, and then controls the throttle or brakes
lightly. ACC cannot detect stationary objects and is only active in
a speed range of 30–200km/h (or 20–120 mph). erefore, the
system is not suitable, for example, for driving in trac congestion.
If a greater speed reduction is required, the driver is alerted by an
audible signal. If the slower-moving vehicle in front is no longer
located in the same lane, the speed of the vehicle will be returned
to the preset speed. An ACC eld trial by the Institute for Road
Safety Research (SWOV) in the Netherlands shows that if all vehi-
cles were equipped with ACC, the number of trac accidents on
highways could decrease by about 13% and on secondary roads by
3.4%.* In the same study, a reduction of fuel consumption by 3%
and an exhaust emission reduction of 5%–10% on highways were
found with an average use of ACC. Nowadays, ACC is already
present in many car models.
ACC’s successor is already on the market: stop-and-go. In addi-
tion to having the functions of the ordinary ACC, this system has
the ability to bring the vehicle to a complete stop and also works
in trac congestion. In trac congestion, the system may control
*
www.swov.nl/rapport/Factsheets/UK/FS_ACC_UK.pdf.
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