289Armed militAry drones
autonomous one in a matter of minutes, simply by changing the soft-
ware. is could even be done after the launch.
Enforcement would have to follow the example of some other trea-
ties, such as the bans on dumdum bullets and anti-personnel mines.
No advance inspections take place, so countries could have this type
of ammunition or weapon in their arsenals. Only when the typical
wounds have been observed will the Red Cross or a UN Commission
start an investigation. e present case is more dicult: autonomous
weapons would produce the same wounds as remotely controlled ones.
Suspicion that a particular attack was carried out without ‘meaningful
human control’ could arise from certain circumstances, such as the
presence of a large swarm, which would be practically uncontrollable.
In such a case, the operating state would have to prove the presence
of a human operator.
To make this possible, it would have to be compulsory for armed
forces to record the data stream into and out of remote-controlled
weapons systems: those of their video and other sensors, their com-
munications with base, the decision processes, the operator’s hand
movements, and so on. Such data, adequately authenticated, could
prove that the attack was indeed under ‘meaningful human con-
trol’, under the direct command of Major so and so and operated
by Captain such and such, as opposed to autonomous. My U.S. col-
league Mark Gubrud and I have worked on this, but obviously, it has
to be developed some more.”
On a more personal note, do you consider yourself an activist scientist?
“I think that would be only half true. I do not have the time to orga-
nize demonstrations and the like, even though I would like to see
more of them. Most of my time is taken up by professional activities
such as keeping track of military R&D and reecting on its poten-
tial long-term eects on peace and stability—obviously, this is what
made me co-found ICRAC. Other than that, I’m also working on
seismic and acoustic technologies that may be used to verify certain
arms control agreements. I feel committed to using my knowledge
as a physicist in the best interest of peace, and since this is a some-
what rare expertise, I think I may leave it to other people to orga-
nize the demonstrations.”
290 Just ordinAry robots
References
Agence France-Presse (2008). Automated killer robots: reat to humanity.
http://www.commondreams.org/news/2008/02/27/automated-killer-
robots-threat-humanity-expert (accessed April 22, 2014).
Alley, R. (2013). e drone debate. Sudden bullet or slow boomerang (discus-
sion paper no. 14/13). Wellington, New Zealand: Centre for Strategic
Studies. http://www.victoria.ac.nz/hppi/centres/strategic-studies/
documents/DP1413OnlineVersion.pdf (accessed November 11, 2014).
Alston, P. (2010). Report of the special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary
or arbitrary executions. Addendum, study on targeted killings. Geneva,
Switzerland: United Nations Human Rights Council. http://www2.
ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/14session/A.HRC.14.24.
Add6.pdf (accessed April 22, 2014).
Altmann, J., Asaro, P., Sharkey, N., & Sparrow, R. (2013). Armed military
robots: Editorial. Ethics and Information Technology, 15(2), 73–76.
Amnesty International (2013). Will I be next? U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan.
London, UK: Amnesty International. http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-
work/issues/security-and-human-rights/drones/will-i-be-next (accessed
January 23, 2014).
Anderson, M., & Anderson, S. L. (2007). Machine ethics: Creating an ethi-
cal intelligent agent. AI Magazine, 28(4): 15–26.
Arkin, R. C. (2009a). Ethical robots in warfare. IEEE Technology and Society
Magazine, 28(1), 30–33.
Arkin, R. C. (2009b). Governing lethal behavior in autonomous robots. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Arkin, R. C. (2010). e case of ethical autonomy in unmanned systems.
Journal of Military Ethics, 9(4), 332–341.
Asaro, P. M. (2008). How just could a robot war be? In A. Briggle, K.Waelbers,
& Ph. Brey (Eds.), Current issues in computing and philosophy (pp. 50–64).
Amsterdam, the Netherlands: IOS Press.
Asaro, P. M. (2009). Modeling the moral user. IEEE Technology and Society,
28(1), 20–24.
Beavers, A. F. (2012). Moral machines and the threat of ethical nihilism. In
P.Lin, K. Abney, & G. A. Bekey (Eds.), Robot ethics. e ethical and social
implications of robotics (pp. 333–344). Cambridge, UK: e MIT Press.
Bergen, P., & Tiedemann, K. (2011). e year of the drone. An analysis of U.S.
drone strikes in Pakistan, 2004–2011 (counterterrorism strategy initia-
tive policy paper). http://newamerica.net/sites/newamerica.net/les/
policydocs/bergentiedemann2.pdf (accessed September 3, 2014).
Blair, D. & Spillius, A. (2011, December 8). Iran shows o captured US
drone. e Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/
middleeast/iran/8944248/Iran-shows-off-captured-US-drone.html
(accessed November 11, 2014).
Boyle, M. J. (2013). e costs and consequences of drone warfare. International
Aairs, 89(1), 1–29.
291Armed militAry drones
Brooks, R. (2012, September 12). Take two drones and call me in the morning.
Foreign Policy. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/09/12/take_
two_drones_and_call_me_in_the_morning (accessed September 4, 2014).
Bumiller, E. (2012, July 29). A day job waiting for a kill shot a world away.
e New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/us/drone-
pilots-waiting-for-a-kill-shot-7000-miles-away.html (accessed October
26, 2014).
Camillero, J. A. (2013, July 20). Drone warfare: Defending the indefensible.
e-International Relations. http://www.e-ir.info/2013/07/20/drone-war-
fare-defending-the-indefensible/ (accessed August 1, 2014).
Canning, J. S. (2006). A concept of operations for armed autonomous sys-
tems. Presented at the third annual disruptive technology conference
(September 6–7), Washington, DC. www.dtic.mil/ndia/2006disruptive_
tech/2006disruptive_tech.html (accessed November 16, 2014).
Carafano, J. J., & Gudgel, A. (2007). e Pentagon’s robots: Arming the
future. Backgrounder, 2093, 1–6.
Coeckelbergh, M. (2013). Drones, information technology, and distance:
Mapping the moral epistemology of remote ghting. Ethics and
Information Technology, 15(2), 87–98.
Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives (2000). Floyd D.
Spence national defense authorization act for scal year 2001. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.
Cummings, M. L. (2006). Automation and accountability in decision support
system interface design. Journal of Technology Studies, 32(1), 23–31.
Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., & Sweitzer, V. L. (2008). Moral disengage-
ment in ethical decision making: A study of antecedents and outcomes.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2), 374–391.
Donnelly, S. B. (2005). Long-distance warriors. Time, 166(24), 42.
Fielding, M. (2006). Robotics in future land warfare. Australian Army Journal,
3(2), 99–108.
Fischer, J. M., & Ravizza, M. (1998). Responsibility and control: A theory of
moral responsibility. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fitzsimmons, S., & Sangha, K. (2013). Killing in high denition: Combat
stress among operators of remotely piloted aircraft. Proceedings of the inter-
national studies association annual convention, San Francisco, CA, April
3–6. http://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2013/Fitzsimmons.pdf (accessed
October 4, 2014).
Fitzsimonds, J. R., & Mahnken, T. G. (2007). Military ocer attitudes
towards UAV adoption: Exploring institutional impediments to innova-
tion. Joint Force Quarterly, 46, 96–103.
Galliott, J. C. (2012). Uninhabited aerial vehicles and the asymmetry objec-
tion: A response to Strawser. Journal of Military Ethics, 11(1), 58–66.
Garraway, C. (2009). e doctrine of command responsibility. In J.
Doria, H.-P. Gasser, & M. C. Bassiouni (Eds.), e legal regime of the
International Criminal Court (pp. 703–725). Leiden, the Netherlands:
Nijho.
292 Just ordinAry robots
Ghosh, B., & ompson, M. (2009). e CIA’s silent war in Pakistan. Time,
173(21), 20.
Gorman, S., Dreazen, Y., & Cole, A. (2009, December 17). Insurgents
hack U.S. drones. e Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/
SB126102247889095011.html (accessed October 5, 2014).
Gulam, H., & Lee, S. W. (2006). Uninhabited combat aerial vehicles and the
law of armed conicts. Australian Army Journal, 3(2), 123–136.
Hellström, T. (2013). On the moral responsibility of military robots. Ethics
and Information Technology, 15(2), 99–107.
Homan, K. (2011, March 29). Will the human disappear in future warfare?
Keynote speech at the Colloquium e soldier in operations: Exploring the
human factors. Brussels, Belgium: e Belgian Royal Higher Institute
for Defence (RHID). www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/les/20110300_
homan_speech.pdf (accessed March 17, 2014).
Horton, S. (2009, January 27). Prepare for the robot wars: Six questions for
P.W. Singer, Author of Wired for war. Harper’s Magazine. http://harpers.
org/blog/2009/01/prepare-for-the-robot-wars-six-questions-for-pw-
singer-author-of-_wired-for-war_/ (accessed January 23, 2015).
Human Rights Watch (2012). Losing humanity: e case against killer robots.
http://www.hrw.org/reports/2012/11/19/losing-humanity-0 (accessed
April 22, 2014).
International Organization for Standardization (2011). Robots for industrial
environments—Safety requirements. http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_
catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=36322
(accessed April 22, 2014).
Iraq Coalition Casualty Count (2008). Deaths caused by IEDs and U.S. deaths
by month. http://icasualties.org/oif/IED.aspx, http://icasualties.org/oif/
USDeathByMonth.aspx (accessed May 9, 2014).
Jennings, G. (2010). Predator-series UAVs surpass one million flight
hours. IHS Jane’s: Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis.
http://www.janes.com/products/janes/defence-security-report.
aspx?ID=1065927694 (accessed August 8, 2014).
Johnson, A. J., & Axinn, S. (2013). e morality of autonomous robots.
Journal of Military Ethics, 12(2), 129–141.
Johnson, R. J. (2013). e wizard of Oz goes to war: Unmanned systems
in counterinsurgency. In B. J. Strawser (Ed.), Killing by remote control:
e ethics of an unmanned military (pp. 154–178). Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Jordan, B. (2007, February 23). Half of predators elded have been lost. Air
Force Times. http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2007/02/AFpredator
losses070223 (accessed April 22, 2014).
Kaag, J., & Kaufman. W. (2009). Military frameworks: Technological know-
how and the legitimization of warfare. Cambridge Review of International
Aairs, 22(4): 585–606.
Kahn, P. (2002). e paradoxes of riskless war. Philosophy & Public Policy
Quarterly, 22(3), 2–8.
293Armed militAry drones
Kaplan, R. D. (2006, September). Hunting the Taliban in Las Vegas. Atlantic
Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/09/
hunting-the-taliban-in-las-vegas/305116/ (accessed April 22, 2014).
Kenyon, H. S. (2006). Israel deploys robot guardians. Signal, 60(7), 41–44.
Kershnar, S. (2013). Autonomous weapons pose no moral problem. In B. J.
Strawser (Ed.), Killing by remote control: e ethics of an unmanned military
(pp. 229–245). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Khan, A. N. (2011). e U.S. policy of targeted killings by drones in Pakistan.
IPRI Journal, 11(1), 21–40.
Krishnan, A. (2009). Killer robots. Legality and ethicality of autonomous weap-
ons. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Lee, P. (2012). Remoteness, risk and aircrew ethos. Air Power Review, 15(1),
1–19.
Lin, P., Bekey, G., & Abney, K. (2008). Autonomous military robotics: Risk, ethics,
and design. San Luis Obispo, CA: Ethics & Emerging Technologies Group.
Lucas, G. R. (2013). Engineering, ethics, and industry: e moral challenges of
lethal autonomy. In B. J. Strawser (Ed.), Killing by remote control: e ethics of
an unmanned military (pp. 212–228). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Marchant, G. E., Allenby, B., Arkin, R. C., Barrett, E. T., Borenstein, J.,
Gaudet, L. M., … Silberman, J. (2011). International governance of auton-
omous military robots. Science and Technology Law Review, 12, 272–315.
Matthias, A. (2004). e responsibility gap: Ascribing responsibility for the
actions of learning automata. Ethics and Information Technology, 6(3),
175–183.
National Research Council (2005). Autonomous vehicles in support of naval
operations. Washington, DC: e National Academies Press.
Oce of the Surgeon Multinational Force-Iraq & Oce of the Surgeon
General United States Army Medical Command (2006). Mental health
advisory team (MHAT) IV. Operation Iraqi freedom 05-07 (nal report).
Washington, DC: Oce of the Surgeon Multinational Force-Iraq &
Oce of the Surgeon General United States Army Medical Command.
http://www. combatreform.org/MHAT_IV_Report_17NOV06.pdf
(accessed April 22, 2014).
Plaw, A. (2013). Counting the dead: e proportionality of predation in
Pakistan. In B. J. Strawser (Ed.), Killing by remote control: e ethics of an
unmanned military (pp. 126–153). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Quintana, E. (2008). e ethics and legal implications of military unmanned
vehicles (occasional paper). London, UK: RUSI. https://www.rusi.org/
downloads/assets/RUSI_ethics.pdf (accessed January 23, 2014).
Royakkers, L. M. M., & Olsthoorn, P. (2014). Military robots and the ques-
tion of responsibility. International Journal of Technoethics, 5(1), 1–14.
Royakkers, L. M. M., & Topolski, A. R. (2014). Military robotics & rela-
tionality: Criteria for ethical decision making. In J. van den Hoven, N.
Doorn, T. Swierstra, B.-J. Koops, & H. Romijn (Eds.), Responsible inno-
vation 1. Innovative solutions for global issues (pp. 351–367). Dordrecht,
the Netherlands: Springer.
..................Content has been hidden....................

You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.
Reset
3.22.181.81