7.1 Need for Water Infrastructure Development

With a consistently increasing demand for water (Foster et al., 2012) and a rise in the number and severity of extreme atmospheric events (Hill et al., 2012), the likelihood that water supply infrastructures will be damaged by extreme weather-related events is increasing. It is very important that countries develop their water infrastructures accordingly. While wealthy countries are able to make significant investments in disaster preparedness and to increase the structural resilience of their water systems to reduce the impact of weather-related events (Hill et al., 2012), developing and poor countries lack the infrastructure to manage, store, and deliver water resources (Grey and Sadoff, 2007) and lack the funding to invest in this infrastructure. Developing countries often have extreme weather and sometimes “difficult” hydrology, a condition characterized by susceptibility to severe flooding or drought. Poor countries make the lowest infrastructure investments and have the weakest institutions (Grey and Sadoff, 2007); thus, there are more risks to their water systems. Because of this lack of infrastructure, poor countries are the most vulnerable to disasters as they are unable to adjust for hydrological variability (Grey and Sadoff, 2007) and do not have the money to deal with the hidden costs of infrastructure damage (Hill et al., 2012). Unable to bear the costs of repairing and maintaining infrastructure, developing countries face barriers to both short-term recovery and long-term development of their water systems (Hill et al., 2012).

7.2 Infrastructure Improvements for Developed Countries

Developed countries have the resources to be responsive and resilient during times of emergency. With developed water infrastructures and individuals dedicated to maintaining and operating water utilities, these countries can adequately prepare for emergencies. Emergency plans in developed countries usually include preparation; plans for emergency, short-term response; and plans for long-term, sustainable response. Emergency preparedness includes testing scenarios based on disaster-prone areas and water supply system vulnerabilities (Patterson and Adams, 2011). Emergency preparedness actions, including infrastructure strengthening and utility training (Patterson and Adams, 2011) and pre-positioning of supplies (Crowther, 2010), can be based on these scenarios. Water infrastructure strengthening could include:

• Reinforce well houses and pump stations

• Sandbag critical water and wastewater components, such as pumps and building entrances

• Overchlorinate water supplies to protect against waterborne pathogens

• Top off water storage tanks and close main valves in anticipation of pipe breaks

• Set electric components to manual mode

• Isolate or shutdown exposed pipes at river crossings (adapted from Patterson and Adams, 2011)

Training sessions for utility operators and managers can include a focus on specific scenarios to facilitate responses to different types of emergencies and should include instruction about proper maintenance of the system (Patterson and Adams, 2011). Another emergency preparedness action for developed countries includes pre-positioning of emergency drinking water supplies, which can guarantee potable water for affected areas. However, the most effective locations for infrastructure strengthening, pre-positioning of supplies, and emergency procedures are based on the outputs of the emergency models and scenarios. Inaccurate emergency prediction models result in inefficient use of pre-positioned supplies, which is not cost effective. Improving modeling of disasters and emergency predictions will increase the effectiveness of emergency preparations, as even a small change in a forecast can result in a large change in a disaster’s area of impact (Crowther, 2010).

In the short-term, immediate response to a disaster, it is important to assess the public water system and prioritize facilities for repair and technical assistance. Crews that perform these technical assessments and analyses can be formed before an emergency and evaluate water treatment facilities during the disaster or immediately afterward (Patterson and Adams, 2011). During the initial phase of the emergency, resources should be allocated as quickly as possible (Oloruntoba, 2010). After the acute emergency phase has passed, a long-term response to the emergency is needed. The long-term emergency response should include an evaluation of system integrity as well as the potential for long-term improvements.

While developed countries may have more resources to provide aid during emergencies than developing countries, developed countries can still improve their response times, management of water supply systems, and communication techniques, especially during the initial phases of disasters (Oloruntoba, 2010; Seyedin and Jamali, 2011). For example, during Hurricane Katrina, the emergency response was robust but was not enough to meet the emergency demands (Tsai and Chi, 2012). In contrast, Australia applied a vast amount of resources during the very early stages of Cyclone Larry, resulting in a more comprehensive emergency plan (Oloruntoba, 2010); thus, developed countries need to improve their emergency responses.

7.3 Infrastructure Improvements for Developing Countries

Emergency response phases in a developing country are similar to the phases in developed countries, though less sophisticated. Developing countries lack infrastructure and often mismanage resources, which worsens the consequences of disasters. During disasters in developing countries, water from any source is used to sustain life, whether or not that source is safe. Relief in the form of water supplies or treatment can be provided by Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local or nonlocal governments. Relief organizations choose the types of water treatment devices they feel are most appropriate for each emergency and location. While creating and strengthening infrastructure may be an emergency preparedness goal for developing countries in the future, doing so immediately may not be cost effective (Crowther, 2010; Lougheed, 2006) as constructing pipelines and treatment infrastructure requires a huge investment and a continual input of resources (Reiff et al., 1996), and building infrastructure does not guarantee that people will consume clean water (Arvai and Post, 2012). Additionally, homes in rural areas are usually widespread, making infrastructure development impractical. Even a centrally located improved water source would require a widespread population to travel great distances to access the water, decreasing the effectiveness of the infrastructure development. Instead, improving the existing, different types of treatment systems could be an intermediate goal (Reiff et al., 1996; Swartz, 2009).

7.4 Short-Term Solutions

POU and packaged technologies (see Chapter 5) are not only applicable in developing countries, but they can also be used in developed countries during emergencies. Because POU technologies allow an individual or small community to treat their own water, these technologies free people from dependence on conventional treatment systems, which are susceptible to failure at multiple points. POU technologies can be integrated into emergency preparedness plans in developed countries through pre-positioning. Instead of pre-positioning supplies such as bottled water, POU treatment devices, which can be used for the short-term phase of an emergency (until conventional treatment is operational again), can be pre-positioned. Crowther (2010) discusses an incentive or reimbursement program that the government can offer to encourage pre-positioning of POU technologies. This prepositioning may be difficult as it involves predicting the location and intensity of the disaster (Crowther, 2010).

7.5 A Wholesome Approach to Infrastructure Development

While the above recommendations for rural and urban areas are short-term solutions based on current conditions and needed improvements, making these changes is easier said than done. These changes have not already been implemented because of politics, social factors, and economics. Lee and Schwab (2005) noted that water infrastructure collapse has been associated with lack of political support, inadequate or improper use of funds, poor management, and poor cost recovery. Other contributing and underlying factors include poor communication, insufficient community involvement, inadequate human resources, or lack of trained personnel. All these problems must be addressed to create an effective and sustainable water supply distribution system as correct maintenance and operation contributes to a water treatment system’s lifespan.

To develop a sustainable approach to water supply, there needs to be an inclusive watershed management policy that will eventually decrease the cost, improve the quality, and increase the quantity of drinking water. Through watershed protection, water sources will become less polluted and easier to treat. Proper sanitation services and hygiene will contribute to reducing pollution. Proper maintenance of the water distribution system will promote the longevity of the infrastructure. Minimizing water waste (known as “unaccounted-for water”) is also an important step in increasing water availability (Lee and Schwab, 2005). As unaccounted-for water use in developing countries is high because of leaks or illegal connections (an average of 30-50% of the water treated in developing countries), reducing this water waste would result in a larger amount of water being available to those who may not have had access to water previously (Lee and Schwab, 2005). Increasing the accessibility of water would result in large financial benefits and increase the standard of living in the watershed. Although a large financial gain is expected from increasing access to drinking water, an initial investment is needed to improve the water system infrastructure. While funding this initial investment may be a challenge for developing countries, the expected financial gain may help the country decide to improve its water system infrastructure.