Chapter 2

Listening Experience

The Mastering Engineer’s Primary Concern

Audio mastering embodies a discipline concerned with enhancing listening experience—how the music affects the listener viscerally, allowing them to experience it inclusive of its attitude, message, melodies, and rhythms. The Mastering Engineer’s adjustments to the audio and their sensitivity to the underlying song sections and performances ideally elevate the listener’s sonic journey. In that regard, final masters should possess, and be checked against, The Eleven Qualities of Superb Audio Fidelity: 1) level/apparent loudness, 2) image, 3) transients, 4) depth, 5) definition, 6) clarity, 7) detail, 8) extension, 9) correct dynamics (micro-dynamics and macro-dynamics), 10) vocal halo, and 11) blossom. Effective mastering improves these audio characteristics. These qualities represent an invaluable ‘checks and balances’ list to reference, so practice identifying them in your mastering work. I’ll explore these qualities in more detail following.

The Eleven Qualities of Superb Audio Fidelity

Level/Apparent Loudness

Level and/or apparent loudness remain primary audio mastering concerns. As discussed in Chapter 1 under competency #4—Become Knowledgeable about Audio Mastering Tools, level is objective, and loudness is subjective or perception-based. Loudness is also inversely proportional to the overall dynamic range of the recording, and making a recording excessively loud often presents a quality trade-off. How loud or ‘hot’ should a professional master be? There are many considerations that inform the answer, including genre-based and market expectations, impact of the production, and artist preference. In the commercial music business ‘make it hot’ remains a common refrain by artists and repertoire (A&R) executives, as record labels believe that it contributes to the hit potential of a recording. If you can create clean (artifact-free), impactful masters that compel listening, chances increase that you will have a line of customers outside your mastering studio.

A fundamental indicator of mastered audio level and loudness is your playback volume setting. If you audition a flat mix or dynamic recording, it requires a higher volume setting to achieve the sound pressure level (SPL) you are accustomed to hearing. Conversely, if auditioning a modern peak-limited recording, the volume will remain lower to achieve a similar SPL since the track has less dynamic range and more apparent volume (aka loudness). In addition, awareness of the target levels of the various genres of music you are working on will frame your approach to the level of audio masters. Thus, it remains beneficial to keep current popular recordings in your DAW to reference and measure so that your masters are competitive level-wise with market trends and expectations. Conversely, don’t unwittingly enlist in the loudness wars: you may conclude that a lower level suits the recording best.

Image

The perceived space between the left and right speaker in stereo audio configurations is the image. The placement and presentation of instruments within that space is referred to as imaging. I often visualize the Hollywood Bowl as a great pictorial representation of image because as opposed to a flat plane, it includes width, height, and depth. Mix elements panned hard left and hard right create width and an expansive image—generally desirable. Mix information emerging from the center of a stereo playback system establishes the phantom center, as there is no speaker there, but audio is heard from the center, directly in front of the listener. If a mix is recorded in mono, the imaging is limited and instrument and frequency balances take precedence.

Height conceptualization in the recorded audio image is informed by a number of observations. Higher frequency instruments emerge from tweeters or super tweeters, which normally sit above a woofer or mid-range driver in a speaker cabinet. Considering a drum set, the low frequencies of a kick drum (physically on the floor) appear to anchor the image, and cymbals remain higher, on stands. A vocalist presents upper mid-range frequencies at head height. These are some of the reasons why high-frequency information is perceived at the top, and lower frequencies at the bottom region of the image. Depth (item 4 ahead) represents another important component of the image.

An excellent master will make use of the space within the image, and even correlate imaging with the dynamics and song sections of a recording. For example, an introduction or verse may have a more narrow or shallow image, but with the entrance of other instruments or new song sections, the width and depth of the image should become more apparent as well.

Transient Response

This is the initial impulse or attack from an instrument or sound source. Transients are readily apparent on drums, percussion, and plucked instruments, but in general every instrument and sound has transient response, and it lends vitality and excitement to music and recordings. It is advantageous to preserve or even enhance transients. Remember that compressors and limiters directly lower transients to avoid distorted peaks or over-levels, or are also used to increase the average volume of an instrument or mix. Conversely, an expander can enhance transient response in a mix. Transients will be the first place that a master will begin to distort, informing you that you are pushing the level too much. One aspect of a great master is to hear and feel the vitality of transient attacks throughout the music. This often begins with the mix engineer providing a dynamic and well-balanced mix.

Depth

This describes the three-dimensional perception of front-to-back instrument placement within the image and refers to the perceived distance of the sound source from the microphone—and hence, the listener. Effective mastering will enhance the presentation of depth, which is largely adjusted at the mix stage. In the Hollywood Bowl analogy, there is a front and back to the soundstage, in addition to numerous left and right spatial positions that create distance from the listener. With the dimension of depth, you can alternately envision the image as a snow globe. When you hear an orchestra, jazz trio, or rock band perform, members are positioned on the stage as a function of their role in the ensemble or to balance and blend the characteristics of their specific instrument. In the orchestra example, the percussion section is placed at the back of the stage, then brass, with woodwinds and strings positioned progressively toward the front. Soloists are routinely featured in front across most genres of music. Enhancing depth in your masters will contribute to an enhanced listening experience.

Definition

This indicates the discernable outline of each element within the image as a whole. The opposite would be an undefined smear between recorded elements—a masking of sounds with similar frequency ranges. Skilled parallel compression is an excellent way to add definition in mastering.

Clarity

This refers to the unobscured and lifelike immediacy of the master. Ideally, it presents as if the musicians are in the room with you. Each musical element has a defined spatial position in the image, and some discernable space between them. A master with clarity sounds natural and has nothing in the way of artifacts or noises (hiss, distortion, or other anomalies). The opposite would be a dull or slightly obscured mix presentation.

Detail

This refers to each instrument’s discernability, including nuances of timbre and complexities of overtones or harmonics. For instance, a snare drum has an attack transient and a broadband tonality which includes the characteristic of the drum head, rattle of the snares, the material the drum shell is made of (usually metal or wood), and sustain, along with any correlated reverberation. Or, a vocal possesses breath, chest, and/or head resonance, tone, diction, vibrato, and any correlated reverb or delay. Practicing listening to solo instruments will inform your awareness of detail. Detail is a desirable component of a great master, and Mastering Engineers regularly seek to enhance this aspect of a mix.

Extension

This pertains to frequency response and refers to the openness of the high frequencies, as well as to the feel and resonance of low or sub-harmonic frequencies. It may or may not be appropriate for all genres of music, but it is generally very appealing. Extension can be identified in the entire mix, but also in elements such as vocals, backing vocals, broad-range instruments, cymbals, kick drums, bass guitar, and synthesized bass sounds. It is the opposite of a ‘band-limited’, contained or mid-range sound quality. To add extension, use hi-shelving or low-shelving EQs with increasing slopes (i.e. tilt, classic Pultec or Gerzon shelf), or a bell-shaped EQ curve set above 20kHz or below 10–20Hz (see Chapter 4—Fundamental Mastering Tools for EQ details).

Correct Dynamics (Musicality)

Dynamics refer to the range of amplitude in a recording. The term applies to both the moment-to-moment differences between transient peaks and subsequent sustain or decay of instruments and music (micro-dynamics), and also the changes in intensity between song sections within the recording (macro-dynamics). The sonic journey of a recording marked by melodic and rhythmic changes is ideally supported by these dynamic changes, and a great master preserves them despite level adjustments and compression. Dynamic range can be measured in the digital domain by subtracting the decibels full scale (dBFS) Peak level from the root mean square (RMS) or average dBFS measurement of the program material. This yields the dynamic range in decibels. Alternately, taking VU meter level readings in the analog domain in dBu and subtracting the lowest reading from the highest reading would also indicate the dynamic range of the recording. Referencing both measurements is ideal when evaluating both flat mixes and final masters.

As mentioned in the previous paragraph, dynamics are classified into two subcategories, macro-dynamics and micro-dynamics. Macro-dynamics are the changes in level between sections of a musical piece. For instance, introduction to verse to pre-chorus to chorus; or, in the case of a symphony: allegro, adagio, scherzo, sonata. These sections relate to one another, and there is an expectation that the chorus section or allegro movement remain louder and busier than the verse section or adagio movement. In most instances of pop, rock, or rap music, the ‘payoff’ is in the climax of the chorus, usually bigger and louder than other song sections. Over-limiting can cause the affliction of inverse macro-dynamics, whereby the quiet sections are louder than the big sections—definitely avoid this. To clarify further, micro-dynamics are the dynamic changes within the music itself, at any given point in the recording, independent of song section.

Vocal (or Featured Instrument) Halo

I refer to halo as the way the vocal or featured instrument presents in the image. A well-mastered recording showcases the vocal in a halo of space, detail, and clarity at the center of the image, often forward and slightly above any accompaniment. Hallmarks of this are clear diction and a breadth of frequencies expressed by the vocal. Mid-Side (M/S) EQ and/or compression can effectively enhance vocal frequencies or even lift the vocal track forward (see Chapter 15—Mid-Side).

Blossom

This refers to the payoff of a chorus, hook, or other hallmark section of a recording. Every section of a song plays a musical role, and most genres of popular music include the climax of a chorus or hook. Blossom is a specific aspect of macro-dynamics and often occurs when the most mix elements are present. The Mastering Engineer must support this natural build and payoff. In these sections, a slight level increase or the widening of the image are methods to enhance blossom.

Conclusion

If you can understand, relate to, and ultimately enhance The Eleven Qualities, your masters will reflect a high degree of audio fidelity and positively impact listening experience. These characteristics provide a checklist with which you can evaluate the mix and your adjustments while mastering.

Exercises

1. Practice listening to and noticing stereo image by listening to a stereo recording and switching from mono to stereo on your monitor controller.
   1. Notice how the breadth of the image changes while in stereo, and the degree of phase cancellation of stereo information while in mono. Which mix elements do and do not move or shift in either configuration? Which elements constitute phantom center? Notate observations.
   2. Identify four mix elements by orientation in the image using an imaginary clock dial superimposed on the image.
   3. Determine whether the drums are drummer perspective or listener perspective, and explain the panning clues.
2. Practice listening for and identifying leading edge transients in two versions of a recording (one dynamic and the other peak-limited).
   1. Notate your observations of the relationship between dynamic range and listening experience in a recording.
   2. Explain how preserved transient response or ‘flattened transients’ from peak-limiting affects the apparent volume of the recording.
3. Practice listening to over-compressed/limited audio and notice how it affects transients, macro-dynamics, and low-mid and high-frequency information. Notate your observations.
4. Select and compare two examples from the lists in parentheses below. Listen and make observations considering The Eleven Qualities discussed in this chapter. Notice how compression, transient response, and level are represented in the following three categories:
   1. Genres of Music (jazz, classical, rock, singer/songwriter, pop, hip-hop/rap, etc.).
   2. Eras of Music (1940s–50s, 1960s–70s, 1980s–90s, 2000s–present).
   3. Recording Methods and Approaches (live, multi-tracked, layered sounds, sampled sounds, analog recording, digital recording).