Chapter 23. Laws, Regulations, and Organizations^[†]

^† Thanks are due Angelina Howard of the Nuclear Energy Institute for helpful information.

After World War II, Congress addressed the problem of exploiting the new source of energy for peaceful purposes. This led to the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, which was expanded in 1954. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) had functions of promotion and regulation for 28 y. Compliance with licensing rules plays an important role in the operation of any nuclear facility. A number of other organizations have evolved to provide technical information, develop standards, protect against diversion of nuclear materials, improve nuclear power operations, and perform private research and development.

23.1. The Atomic Energy Acts

The first law in the United States dealing with control of nuclear energy was the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Issues of the times were involvement of the military, security of information, and freedom of scientists to do research (see References).

In the declaration of policy, the Act says, “… the development and utilization of atomic energy shall, so far as practicable, be directed toward improving the public welfare, increasing the standard of living, strengthening free competition in private enterprise, and promoting world peace.” The stated purposes of the Act were to carry out that policy through both private and federal research and development, to control information and fissionable material, and to provide regular reports to Congress. Special mention was given to the distribution of “byproduct material,” which includes the radioactive substances used for medical therapy and for research. The act created the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), consisting of five commissioners and a general manager. The AEC was given broad powers to preserve national security while advancing the nuclear field. A Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE) provided oversight for the new AEC. It included nine members each from the Senate and the House. Advice to the AEC was provided by the civilian General Advisory Committee and the Military Liaison Committee.

The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 revised and liberalized the previous legislation and expanded the AEC's role in disseminating unclassified information while retaining control of restricted weapons data. The groundwork was laid for a national program of reactor research and development with cooperation between the AEC and industry, including some degree of private ownership. The act authorized sharing of atomic technology with other countries, spelled out licensing procedures for the use of nuclear materials, and clarified the status of patents and inventions.

The powerful AEC carried out its missions of supplying material for defense, promoting beneficial applications, and regulating uses in the interests of public health and safety. It managed some 50 sites around the United States. Seven of the sites were labeled “national laboratories,” each with many R&D projects under way. The AEC owned the facilities, but contractors operated them. For example, Union Carbide Corporation had charge of Oak Ridge National Laboratory. During the Cold War of the late 1940s and early 1950s new plutonium and enriched uranium plants were built, weapons tests were conducted in the South Pacific, and a major uranium exploration effort was begun. Under AEC sponsorship a successful power reactor research and development program was carried out. Both the United States and the U.S.S.R. developed the hydrogen bomb, and the nuclear arms race escalated.

Critics pointed out that the promotional and regulatory functions of the AEC were in conflict, despite an attempt to separate them administratively. Eventually, in 1974, the activities of the AEC were divided between two new agencies, the Energy Research and Development Administration and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).

23.2. The Environmental Protection Agency

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) included a Council on Environmental Quality in the executive branch and required environmental impact statements on all federal projects. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was then proposed and accepted. A prominent part of EPA is the administration of the Superfund to clean up old waste sites. EPA has responsibility for standards on hazardous, solid, and radioactive wastes. EPA also sets standards for radiation protection that are used by the NRC in its licensing and regulation.

The topics of EPA as listed in its 2008 budget (see References) are clean air and global climate change, clean and safe water, land preservation and restoration, healthy communities and ecosystems, and compliance and environmental stewardship. The activity of EPA that is most relevant to nuclear energy is Radiation Protection (see References). EPA also has a research program on the causes and effects of acid rain. More recently it has initiated a program related to terrorism, assuring capabilities for detection and recovery.

The EPA provides key nuclear regulations, appearing in Code of Federal Regulations. In Title 40 Part 61 the release of radionuclides is limited to a value calculated to be less than 10 mrem/y. The computer code to use is specified. In 40CFR191 dealing with disposal of high-level wastes and spent fuel it is required that during the first 10,000 y no member of the public will receive an annual dose larger than 15 mrems (150 μSv). In addition, release limits are given for several radionuclides, expressed as curies per thousand metric tons of heavy metal (U, Pu, etc.). The lowest figure, 10 Ci, is for Th-230 or Th-232; most isotopes are at 100 Ci; the highest figure 10,000 Ci is for Tc-99. Complete copies of the regulations are available online (see References).

23.3. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission

The federal government through the NRC has the authority to license and regulate nuclear facilities of all types, from a multireactor power station down to isotope research in an individual laboratory. The Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation of the NRC requires applicants for a reactor license to submit a voluminous and detailed Safety Analysis Report and an Environmental Report. These documents provide the basis for issuance of a construction permit, and later when the plant is completed, an operating license. The process involves several steps: review of the application by the NRC staff; an independent safety evaluation by the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS); the holding of public hearings in the vicinity of the proposed plant by an Atomic Safety and Licensing Board (ASLB); and the testing of qualifications of the people who will operate the plant. In addition to completing a written examination, operators are tested on the plant's simulator and on their knowledge of the location and operation of equipment. The NRC and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) sb:collaborationorate in setting criteria for emergency response programs that are developed by the utilities, state government, and local government. The five NRC commissioners make the final decision on low-power operation and full-power operation.

Once a plant is licensed, the Office of Inspection and Enforcement has oversight. The nuclear operations are subject to continual scrutiny by the resident inspector and periodic inspection by teams from the regional NRC office. Training of operating personnel goes on continuously, with one shift in training while other shifts run the plant. Periodic exercises of the emergency plan for the 10-mile radius zone about the plant are conducted. Nuclear stations are required to report unusual events to the NRC promptly. The NRC maintains a nuclear engineer on duty at all times to receive calls and take action as needed. The staff routinely reviews all incidents. For a number of years NRC administered a program called Systematic Assessment of Licensee Performance (SALP). A new substitute is the Reactor Oversight Process (see References), which involves monitoring performance in three areas—reactor safety, radiation safety, and safeguards (against security threats). The process gives attention to human performance, safety culture, and corrective actions. Plants provide reports to the NRC on a set of performance indicators. Companies are subject to fines for lack of compliance with regulations, and if necessary, NRC can shut a plant down. The principal reference is the Code of Federal Regulations Title 10, Energy. Key sections of that annually updated book are: Part 20, Standards for Protection Against Radiation; Part 50, Domestic Licensing of Production and Utilization Facilities; Part 60, Disposal of High Level Radioactive Wastes in Geological Repositories; Part 61, Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste; Part 63, Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Wastes in a Geologic Repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Part 71, Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive Material; and Part 100, Reactor Site Criteria. Part 50 has a number of appendices covering criteria for general design, quality assurance, emergency plans, emergency core cooling system, and fire protection. For Web access to the complete document, see References. Standards for NRC licensed facilities and DOE sites in 10CFR61 include annual dose limits of 25 mrems to the whole body or 75 mrems to the thyroid or 25 mrems to any other organ of members of the public.

The NRC reviewed its security programs and made enhancements at many facilities. The actions are documented in a report titled “Protecting Our Nation—Since 9-11-01.”

Other NRC references are the Regulatory Guides (“Reg. Guides”), each consisting of many pages of instructions. Titles appear on NRC's Web site (see References), with ability to download key Guides.

NRC's policies and practices underwent a transition. Traditionally, evaluation of compliance was based on deterministic design information that involved engineering data and analysis. It also was prescriptive in nature, in which specific instructions to nuclear facilities were provided (e.g., Appendix A of 10CFR50 that covers general design criteria). In 1995, NRC adopted risk-informed regulation. Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA, see Section 19.4) was to be used to decide the most important areas for attention in terms of safety. NRC also endorsed the idea of performance-based regulation, in which goals of performance are provided, but the utilities are able to decide how to achieve the goals. The combination of approaches is designated as Risk-Informed Performance-Based regulation. Definitions and discussion of the various approaches to regulation appear in a white paper on the Internet (see References).

An example of regulation that required much effort to implement was the Maintenance Rule, a brief statement by NRC in 1996 of expectations on monitoring the performance of structures, systems, and components (SSC) with respect to maintenance. PRA was not mandated, but needed to define the scope of safety significance. The nuclear industry responded with detailed guidance documents.

The NRC can delegate some of its authority to individual states by negotiation. An Agreement State can develop its own regulations for users of radiation and radioactive material (i.e., facilities other than those of the nuclear fuel cycle). However, the regulations must be compatible with, and no less strict than, those of the NRC.

In addition to its licensing and regulatory activities, the NRC carries out an extensive research program related to radiation protection, nuclear safety, and radioactive waste disposal. Part of the research is “in-house” and part is through contractors to the NRC. The workload of NRC has increased greatly as many nuclear power plants seek license extension and as applications for licenses of new reactors have been received.

The Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards has responsibility for interaction with, and reporting to, the International Atomic Energy Agency on fissionable material for safeguards purposes.

23.4. The Department of Energy

The federal government has legal responsibility for assuring adequate energy supply through the Department of Energy (DOE). This cabinet-level department was formed in 1977 from several other groups and is headed by the Secretary of Energy.

The agency supports basic research in science and engineering and engages in energy technology development. It also manages national defense programs such as nuclear weapons design, development, and testing. DOE operates several multiprogram laboratories^[†] and many smaller facilities around the United States. The Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management has responsibility for carrying out the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, which involves management of the Waste Fund, repository site selection, and the design of a storage facility. The broader scope of DOE activities can be seen from some of the sections in the Annual Performance and Accountability Report (to Congress): Environmental Cleanup, Security, Safety and Health, Project Management, Oversight of Contractors, Information Technology Management, Human Capital, and Stockpile Surveillance & Testing. The document highlights the need for a balanced and diversified mix of energy sources, including conservation, coal, and nuclear power. The Report describes accomplishments in 59 program goals.

^† Argonne National Laboratory, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Idaho National Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, and Sandia National Laboratories.

A report that describes United States energy policy is National Energy Strategy (see References). Goals of this plan are listed as: (I) Improve the efficiency of the energy system; (II) Ensure against energy disruption; (III) Promote energy production and use in ways that respect health and environmental values; (IV) Expand future energy choices; and (V) Cooperate internationally on global issues.

The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 has these objectives: improve vehicle fuel economy, reduce dependence on foreign oil, and reduce projected CO² emissions through “… greater use of cleaner coal technology, solar and wind energy, and clean, safe nuclear power.”

23.5. International Atomic Energy Agency

In 1953, President Dwight Eisenhower gave a speech titled “Atoms for Peace” that had an important influence on all aspects of nuclear energy. After describing the danger of nuclear war, he proposed the formation of an Atomic Energy Agency that would be responsible for receiving contributed fissionable materials, storing them, and making them available for peaceful purposes. He hoped to thus prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons. For a copy of the speech, (see References).

In response to the speech, the United Nations established the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), through a statute ratified by the necessary number of countries in 1957. More than 130 nations support and participate in the programs administered by headquarters in Vienna. The objective of the IAEA is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world.”

One of the actions of the United States was to supply enriched uranium to other countries for use in research reactors. Universities (Pennsylvania State and North Carolina State) and a national laboratory (Argonne) provided formal training in nuclear technology for scientists and engineers of many nations.

International conferences sponsored by IAEA were held in 1955, 1958, 1964, and 1971 at Geneva, with all countries of the world invited to participate. The first of these revealed the progress made by the U.S.S.R. in nuclear R&D.

The main functions of IAEA are as follows:

• To help its members develop nuclear applications to agriculture, medicine, science, and industry. Mechanisms are conferences, expert advisor visits, publications, fellowships, and the supply of nuclear materials and equipment. Special emphasis is placed on isotopes and radiation. Local research on the country's problems is encouraged. Nuclear programs sponsored by IAEA often help strengthen basic science in developing countries, even if they are not yet ready for nuclear power.
• To administer a system of international safeguards to prevent diversion of nuclear materials to military purposes. This involves the review by the IAEA of reports by individual countries on their fissionable material inventories and on-the-spot inspections of facilities. Included are reactors, fuel fabrication plants, and reprocessing facilities. Such monitoring is done for countries that signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 and do not have nuclear weapons. The form of the monitoring is set by agreement. If a serious violation is found, the offending nation could lose its benefits from the IAEA.

IAEA is one of the largest science publishers in the world because it sponsors a number of symposia on nuclear subjects each year and publishes the proceedings of each. The outlet in the United States is Bernan UNIPUB. IAEA also promotes international rules, for example, in the area of transportation safety.

Recent initiatives of the IAEA include the establishment of agreements with countries on the application of safeguards. A large number of safeguards seminars are given each year. Annual reports on nuclear-related information are available online (see References).

Unfortunately, IAEA has had difficulties in making inspections in certain countries. Over several years Iraq either refused entry or limited access to its facilities. A similar situation existed in North Korea and Iran.

23.6. Institute of Nuclear Power Operations

Many organizations contribute to the safety and effectiveness of nuclear power generation, not the least of which are the operating companies themselves. One organization, however, provides a broad stimulus to excellence that warrants special attention. The Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) is the industry's self-regulation organization. Its objective is to promote the highest level of safety and reliability in the operation of nuclear electric generating plants.

Based in Atlanta, GA, INPO has approximately 350 employees, a number of whom are on loan from industry. It was founded by the electric utilities operating nuclear plants in 1979 shortly after the Three Mile Island accident. Corporate leaders saw the need for the utilities to be actively responsible for safety rather than merely complying with NRC regulations. The Kemeny Commission, in its report on the accident, recognized the need for forming INPO. All utilities that have nuclear plants are members of INPO as a private nonprofit organization. Its programs embrace nuclear systems vendors and utilities outside the United States. In its work to promote excellence in safety and reliability of operation of nuclear electric generating plants it has four cornerstone programs. It evaluates the operational performance of utilities, analyzes plant events and distributes lessons-learned information, evaluates training and provides accreditation, and assists member companies. More than 100 reactors operated by more than 40 utilities are influenced by INPO's activities. INPO has no role as an advocate of nuclear power but recognizes that excellent performance is vital to public confidence.

Evaluations are performed regularly by teams of INPO staff members and personnel from other utilities. They visit a facility for 2 weeks—reviewing, observing, and discussing activities. Day-to-day operations and maintenance programs are examined, along with management practices. Candid interactions lead to an evaluation report that identifies both strengths and areas needing improvement. Such evaluations are shared only with the utility for its use in improving performance. This ability to communicate freely is regarded as very important.

Data on operational events are obtained by the INPO program called Significant Event Evaluation and Information Network (SEE-IN), established in 1980. It is designed to share experiences. INPO receives reports from the utilities and other sources, studies them for possible precursors of severe problems, and sends out information on a computer-based communication system NUCLEAR NETWORK. INPO also prepares formal documents including Significant Event Reports (SERs) that describe the most important occurrences, and Significant Operating Experience Reports (SOERs) that are comprehensive reviews of key topics. The latter documents provide recommendations for solutions in areas such as radiological protection, training, and maintenance practices.

An enormous amount of information on nuclear power plant equipment has been collected and put into INPO's database Equipment Performance Information Exchange (EPIX). Events and incidents involving equipment failure are reported and analyzed for root causes and ways to prevent future problems. A continuous flow of information to and from INPO keeps the industry up to date on equipment performance. Of special value is the ability of a utility to quickly obtain information on the solution of an equipment problem by access to EPIX.

In the area of training of personnel, INPO administers the National Academy for Nuclear Training. The Academy's objective is to assure ample knowledge and skill on the part of nuclear personnel and to promote professionalism among nuclear workers. INPO issues guidelines on training in classes and on simulators. It reviews the training programs set up by utilities for supervisors, shift technical advisors, operators, maintenance personnel, and technicians. It also manages the accreditation done by the independent National Nuclear Accrediting Board. The Academy provides workshops, meetings, training courses, and reports, all aimed at the improvement of performance by workers, supervisors, and management.

Assistance programs that continually evolve to meet the changing needs of the nuclear industry help member utilities improve nuclear operations. Through assistance visits, working meetings, workshops, technical documents, and loan of personnel, INPO fosters comparison and exchange of successful methods among members. INPO carefully watches a set of performance indicators, which are quantified trends that measure success in achieving excellence. Examples are plant availability to produce electricity, industrial safety, safety system performance, fuel reliability, unplanned automatic scrams, radiation exposure, and volume of radioactive waste. With input from its Board of Directors and Advisory Council, INPO assists in setting target goals for the industry, with distinctions between PWRs and BWRs as appropriate. Figure 23.1 shows trends over the years of two of the key performance indicators, unplanned scrams and radiation exposure, as a composite for the two types of reactor.

Figure 23.1. Trends in two nuclear utility key performance indicators.

(Adapted from INPO data).

The organization welcomes utilities from other countries as participants who receive benefits of information exchange but are not subject to evaluations or accreditations. Other countries often assign liaison engineers to the INPO staff. International cooperation on nuclear power is stimulated by an allied organization called the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO), with centers in Atlanta, Paris, Moscow, and Tokyo, and a coordinating center in London (see References). It establishes the performance indicators and facilitates communication, comparison, and emulation among organizations in many countries. INPO is the United States representative to WANO and makes its information capabilities available worldwide. The WANO-Atlanta Center is co-located with INPO. Whenever possible, WANO helps maintain stable nuclear power operations in countries that have economic and social problems.

INPO's activities are recognized as independent and supplementary to those of the NRC. The industry supports and oversees INPO but gives it authority to enforce its recommendations, thus providing self-regulation by peer review. It is widely accepted that the activities of the INPO have significantly contributed to the improvement in the level of safety in the United States and abroad.

Thanks are due to Philip McCullough for helpful information on INPO.

23.7. Department of Homeland Security

This federal organization was created after the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. It was authorized by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Domestic Nuclear Detection Office of Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has the goal of improving the nation's capability to thwart attempts to use nuclear or radiological materials against the United States. The principal emphasis is on detection that reduces vulnerability. Section 101 of the Act states the primary mission of DHS. Included is the assignment as focal point for natural and manmade crises and emergency planning. Section 504 identifies a Nuclear Incident Response Team (NIRT). A part of that Team according to Section 506 is DOE's Oak Ridge–based Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site (REAC/TS) that is prepared to go into action on short notice.

The document National Strategy for Homeland Security was issued in 2007. It identified four main purposes: to prevent terrorist attacks, to protect people, infrastructure, and resources, to respond to and recover from incidents, and to strengthen the security system. A companion document of 2006 is titled National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. All of the preceding references are found online.

23.8. Other Organizations

The following brief descriptions of organizations that supply information and assistance to the nuclear industry do not do justice to their importance in electrical power generation.

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) is a private nonprofit organization in Palo Alto, CA. It was founded in 1973 to carry out the major research program needed to meet the expected electric power demand. Its stated mission is “to discover, develop, and deliver advances in science and technology for the benefit of member utilities, their customers, and society.” It supports studies by its contractors in the general energy field, in coal combustion, nuclear power, and electrical systems. Its product is in the form of research and development reports, distributed widely for use by the industry. EPRI has sponsored the development of computer codes to be used by utilities in managing their fuel cycle and reactor safety analysis programs. EPRI has major initiatives in reactor safety as related both to operations and maintenance, in reliability methodology aimed at reducing operating and maintenance costs while assuring safety, planning for operating license renewal, and contributions to the industry's plan to install advanced light water reactors. Its Nuclear Safety Department staff makes in-depth analyses of potential accidents and recommends ways to avoid them. The process involves the study of event reports, setting priorities, and proposing remedies. A few of the topics covered are probabilistic risk assessment, pressurized thermal shock of reactor vessels, steam generator tube rupture, fuel failure, control of hydrogen, seismic protection, station blackout, the effect of the fission product source term on emergency planning, decay heat removal capability, diesel generator reliability, and reduction in reactor trips. EPRI's mission relates to all electricity generation, but it works in close cooperation with INPO on nuclear power generation.

The Edison Electric Institute (EEI), named for inventor Thomas Edison, was formed in 1933 to represent investor-owned electric utilities. It consists of more than 300 companies, affiliates, and associates, and its staff draws on thousands of experts in the industry to serve on the organization's many committees. Examples are the Policy Committee on Energy Resources and the Nuclear Power Executive Advisory Committee. EEI deals with broad issues of interest to the electric industry, such as management, economics, legislation, regulation, and environmental matters. Subjects of concern to EEI are the future of the nuclear option and maintenance of reliable transmission capability in a changing regulatory environment. Links to its organizations and related sites are found in References.

The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) is the Washington-based policy organization of the nuclear energy industry. NEI, formed in 1994, has 300 corporate members in 15 countries. They include companies that operate nuclear power plants, design and engineering firms, fuel suppliers, companies involved in nuclear medicine and nuclear industrial applications, universities, and labor unions. NEI, with member participation, develops policy on key legislative and regulatory issues affecting the industry. It then serves as a unified industry voice before Congress, Executive Branch agencies, and federal regulators. NEI also provides a forum to resolve technical and business issues for the industry through a number of committees and task forces. Finally, NEI provides accurate and timely information through speeches, print publications, and its Web site (see References). The wide range of information on nuclear energy and technologies is provided for the general public, students and teachers, journalists, financial analysts, and congressional staff members. Featured topics include reliability and efficiency, environmental preservation, transportation safety, education and careers, as well as the basics of nuclear plant operations, nuclear policy issues, and facts and statistics. The organization is committed to maintaining the nuclear option as an environmentally friendly, emission-free source for the United States and the world, and to promoting the values of safety, reliability, and efficiency. More than 6000 industry professionals participate in NEI activities and programs. NEI maintains close relations with other industry organizations, such as INPO, WANO, EEI, ANS, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA), and American Public Power Association (APPA).

The American Nuclear Society is the principal professional organization of those working in the nuclear field in industry, government, and universities. Founded in 1954, it has approximately 11,000 members. Its stated objective is “to advance science and engineering related to the atomic nucleus.” This is achieved by providing objective technical evaluation of nuclear issues and educating the public, particularly students and teachers, about nuclear matters. ANS emphasizes the importance to its members of professionalism and responsibility. The society is very active in generating and updating nuclear standards. It has a committee of a large number of scientists and engineers. A thorough discussion of ANS standards is available on the Web (see References). ANS publishes journals including Nuclear Science and Engineering, Nuclear Technology, Radwaste Solutions, and Nuclear News. ANS also coordinates the publication of technical books and conference reports, including Transactions of the American Nuclear Society. Its divisions represent major subject areas such as Reactor Physics, Nuclear Criticality Safety, and Isotopes and Radiation. Its committees serve functions such as public information, planning, and standards. Local sections and student chapters throughout the country hold regular technical meetings in behalf of members and the nuclear field.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has two major nuclear groups—the Nuclear Power Engineering Committee and the Power Generation Committee. These have subcommittees on topics such as Operations, Surveillance, and Testing; Energy Development; Nuclear Power; Quality Assurance; and Human Factors and Control Facilities. The monthly publication Proceedings of the IEEE often contains survey articles on nuclear topics.

Several other journals provide technical information on nuclear energy. Examples are Annals of Nuclear Energy, Waste Management, and Nuclear Engineering International, a British publication that covers world nuclear activities.

Nuclear utility groups on various subjects are informal working associations of experts with common technical or administrative problems. Of the more than 30 topics, examples are PWR steam generators, nuclear waste management, seismic qualification, degraded core rule making, and plant life extension. Nuclear owners groups are composed of people from companies owning equipment supplied by one of the four vendors—Westinghouse, General Electric, Babcock and Wilcox, and ABB Combustion Engineering—and having a common technical problem.

The APPA represents and provides services to 1,750 community-owned electrical utilities. The NRECA supports rural electrification and development. It embraces a variety of other cooperative organizations.

Related organizations are the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), whose principal function is to improve the quality and effectiveness of public utility regulation in the United States; and the Nuclear Non-Operating Owners Group (NNOG), which as its name implies is an association of organizations that own nuclear facilities operated by others. It is principally a forum for exchange of information and ideas.

Standards are descriptions of acceptable engineering practice. Professional technical societies, industrial organizations, and the federal government cooperate in the development of these useful documents. They represent general agreement, arrived at by careful study, writing, review, and discussion by qualified practitioners. Many hundreds of scientists and engineers participate in standards development.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) provides an umbrella under which standards are written and published for use by reactor designers, manufacturers, constructors, utilities, and regulators (see References). Some of the societies that are active in standards development are the American Nuclear Society (ANS), the Health Physics Society (HPS), the American Association of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

The first nuclear engineering education program in the United States was initiated in 1950 at then North Carolina State College. Subsequently, some 80 programs were established, a number with research and training reactors. Graduates assumed positions of leadership in the development of nuclear applications. In the course of time, however, some departments were merged with others or terminated, and many of the reactors were shut down (see References). Many companies and government agencies provide assistance to students of nuclear science and engineering. An example involving NEI and INPO is found in References.

The Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (NERI) consists of grant awards by the DOE for research at universities, national laboratories, and industry. Three areas are emphasized: new reactors (Gen IV), advanced fuel cycle, and hydrogen production. A part of the NERI funding is in a program called Innovation in Nuclear Infrastructure and Engineering (INIE) that is specifically for universities. The programs have been very helpful in increasing enrollments in nuclear programs, as discussed in References. There will be a continuing need for new manpower in the nuclear renaissance, not only to design and build new systems but also to replace the aging workforce.

23.9. Energy Policy Acts

Efforts were underway for several years in the United States to develop a comprehensive energy program that would integrate the activities of the DOE, the NRC, the EPA, and other federal agencies, with contributions by the private sector. These initiatives culminated in the passage by Congress of the legislation titled Energy Policy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-486). It provided energy efficiency goals and standards, promoted alternative fuels, prescribed new R & D on electric vehicles, restructured the production of electricity, addressed radioactive waste disposal, established a uranium enrichment corporation, and simplified nuclear plant licensing. In essence, the law affirmed the nation's commitment to preserve and extend the nuclear option as part of a broad energy mix. From the more than 350 pages of the Act, we can highlight the features that are related primarily to nuclear energy.

• Energy efficiency. Standards, guidelines, and incentives were provided for conservation efforts.
• Electric cars. DOE was to work with manufacturers and the electric utility industry to develop practical vehicles.
• Electrical generation. Other organizations besides utilities were permitted to generate power.
• High-level radioactive waste. EPA was to provide safety standards for Yucca Mountain, taking cognizance of recommendations of the National Academy of Science. NRC rules were to be consistent with those of EPA.
• United States Enrichment Corporation. This was created to operate as a business enterprise on a profitable and efficient basis. It was allowed to lease facilities and sell enrichment services.
• Fusion energy. United States was to participate in ITER and pursue various fusion concepts.
• Advanced nuclear reactors. Designs alternative to light water reactors (LWRs) were to be designed and certified.
• Nuclear plant licensing. NRC was to use combined construction and operating licenses.

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 had a number of provisions related to nuclear energy. Included are the following:

• Amendment of the nuclear insurance legislation, the Price-Anderson Act.
• Decommissioning of the SEFOR fast breeder reactor.
• Permission to send U-235 abroad for medical isotope production (with adequate protection).
• Arrangement for a study by the National Academy of Science (NAS) of medical isotope production.
• Management of Greater-than-Class-C low-level radioactive wastes.
• Prohibition of shipment of nuclear materials, equipment, or technology to countries sponsoring terrorism.
• Demonstration of hydrogen production by a nuclear power reactor.
• NRC user fees and annual charges.
• Standby support for six new reactors.
• Establishment of a Next Generation Nuclear Power Plant Project for production of electricity and hydrogen.
• Security evaluations of nuclear plants by NRC.
• Determination of design basis threat to nuclear facilities by NRC.
• Partnerships with minority colleges.
• Arrangement with NAS for a study of uses of radiation sources.
• Assurance of security of radiation sources.
• Use of firearms to protect nuclear facilities or materials.
• Security of transfer of nuclear material.

Criticism has been leveled at Congress by the organization Public Citizen for “nuclear giveaways” in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (see References). In contrast, President Bush in signing the Act strongly supported nuclear power as follows:

“Nuclear power is another of America's most important sources of electricity. Of all our nation's energy sources, only nuclear power plants can generate massive amounts of electricity without emitting an ounce of air pollution or greenhouse gases. And thanks to the advances in science and technology, nuclear plants are far safer than ever before. Yet America has not ordered a nuclear plant since the 1970s. To coordinate the ordering of new plants, the bill I sign today continues the Nuclear Power 2010 Partnership between government and industry. It also offers a new form of federal risk insurance for the first six builders of new nuclear power plants. With the practical steps in this bill, America is moving closer to a vital national goal. We will start building nuclear power plants again by the end of this decade.”

23.10. Summary

Congress passed the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, amended in 1954, to further peaceful purposes, as well as to maintain defense. The AEC was formed to administer the programs. Later, the AEC was split. Currently the DOE is responsible for development of nuclear energy and the NRC enforces rules on radiation set by the EPA. The IAEA helps developing countries and monitors nuclear inventories. The DHS emphasizes detection of nuclear materials. Among other influential organizations are the INPO, the EPRI, and the NEI. The ANSI and the ANS are active in developing standards for processes and procedures in the nuclear industry. Education and training in nuclear technology are provided by a number of universities. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 provided comprehensive national goals and requirements on energy efficiency and generation. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 has many provisions favoring nuclear and deals with protection against terrorism.

23.11 References

Atomic Energy Act of 1946 Atomic Energy Act of 1946

http://www.osti.gov/atomicenergyact.pdf http://www.osti.gov/atomicenergyact.pdf

Excerpts from legislative history Excerpts from legislative history.

List of United States Federal Government Agencies List of United States Federal Government Agencies

http://www.lib.lsu.edu/govdocs/federal/list.html http://www.lib.lsu.edu/govdocs/federal/list.html

A comprehensive set of links maintained by Louisiana State University Libraries A comprehensive set of links maintained by Louisiana State University Libraries.

History of Nuclear Energy History of Nuclear Energy

http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/History.pdf http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/History.pdf

Brief (28 pages) pamphlet Brief (28 pages) pamphlet. Chronology to 1992, references, and glossary.

Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency

http://www.epa.gov http://www.epa.gov

Select About EPA/EPA's Budget Select About EPA/EPA's Budget or Policy Statements and Strategy Documents/Strategic Plan.

Environmental Protection Agency activities Environmental Protection Agency activities

http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy07/pdf/budget/epa.pdf http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy07/pdf/budget/epa.pdf

Description of all programs Description of all programs.

EPA Radiation Program EPA Radiation Program

http://www.epa.gov/radiation http://www.epa.gov/radiation

Select from a variety of links Select from a variety of links (e.g., Laws and Regulations/List of Federal and State Regulations/EPA/Part 191).

Mazuzan and Walker, 1984 George T. Mazuzan, J.Samuel Walker, Controlling the Atom: The Beginnings of Nuclear Regulation 1946–1962 1984 California University Press Berkeley and Los Angeles Written by historians of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the book provides a detailed regulatory history of the Atomic Energy Commission

A Short History of Nuclear Regulation, 1946–1999 A Short History of Nuclear Regulation, 1946–1999

http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/short-history.html http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/short-history.html

The first chapter The first chapter is drawn from the book by Mazuzan and Walker.

Code of Federal Regulations Code of Federal Regulations, Energy, Title 10, Parts 0–199, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC (annual revision). All rules of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission appear in this book, published by the Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration. Available to be downloaded by sections in pdf at the NRC Web site.

Maintenance Rule Maintenance Rule

http://www.nrc.gov http://www.nrc.gov

Search on 10CFR 50.65 Search on 10CFR 50.65.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Nuclear Regulatory Commission

http://www.nrc.gov http://www.nrc.gov

Select About NRC/Organization and Functions Select About NRC/Organization and Functions or /How We Regulate.

NRC Regulatory Guides NRC Regulatory Guides

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides

Select from list of ten divisions Select from list of ten divisions.

NRC New Reactor Licensing NRC New Reactor Licensing

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors.html http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors.html

Select Combined License Application Select Combined License Application.

NRC Reactor License Renewal NRC Reactor License Renewal

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/licensing/renewal.html http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/licensing/renewal.html

Select Status of Current Applications Select Status of Current Applications.

Risk-Informed Performance-Based Regulation Risk-Informed Performance-Based Regulation

http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/risk-informed.html http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/risk-informed.html

Explore links Explore links.

Nuclear Security and Safeguards Nuclear Security and Safeguards

http://www.nrc.gov/security.html http://www.nrc.gov/security.html

Select reports Protecting Select Reports Protecting Our Nation and Force-on-Force Exercises at Nuclear Plants.

U.S. Department United States Department of Energy

http://www.doe.gov http://www.doe.gov

Select About DOE or National Energy Policy Select About DOE or National Energy Policy.

Comprehensive National Energy Strategy Comprehensive National Energy Strategy

http://www.pi.energy.gov/documents/cnes.pdf http://www.pi.energy.gov/documents/cnes.pdf

A 1998 discussion of goals A 1998 discussion of goals.

DOE Performance DOE Performance and Accountability Report

http://www.cfo.doe.gov/progliaison/2005pr.pdf http://www.cfo.doe.gov/progliaison/2005pr.pdf

Goals and progress of the Department of Energy Goals and progress of the Department of Energy.

DOE Information Bridge DOE Information Bridge

http://www.osti.gov/bridge http://www.osti.gov/bridge

A large collection of online reports A large collection of online reports.

Energy security for the 21st Century Energy Security for the 21st Century

http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/energy http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/energy

Select Fact Sheet Select Fact Sheet: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.

Eisenhower, November 2003 Dwight D. Eisenhower, Atoms for Peace Nuclear News November 200338-

Atoms for Peace—Updating the Vision, January 2004Atoms for Peace—Updating the Vision Nuclear News January 200455- Report on a topical meeting assessing the realization of Eisenhower's vision

International Atomic Energy Agency International Atomic Energy Agency

http://www.iaea.org http://www.iaea.org

Select About IAEA or Our Work Select About IAEA or Our Work.

IAEA Safeguards IAEA Safeguards Overview

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/iaeasafeguards.htm http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/iaeasafeguards.htm

Protocol and inspections Protocol and inspections. by World Nuclear Association.

IAEA 2007 IAEA 2007 Year in Review

http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2007/year_in_review.html http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2007/year_in_review.html

Events and developments Events and developments (e.g., Iran's nuclear ambitions).

Scheinman, 1987 Lawrence Scheinman, The International Atomic Energy Agency and World Nuclear Order 1987 Resources for the Future Washington, DC History of origin of IAEA, structure and activities, and relationship to safeguards

World Association of Nuclear Operators World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO)

http://www.wano.org.uk http://www.wano.org.uk

Select Programmes Select Programmes.

Zack Pate: His WANO career 2002Zack Pate: His WANO career Nuclear News August 200225-

Department of Homeland Security Department of Homeland Security

http://www.dhs.gov/index.shtm http://www.dhs.gov/index.shtm

Select About the Department/Prevention Select About the Department/Prevention and Protection/Domestic Nuclear Detection Office/Laws and Regulations.

Electric Power Research Institute Electric Power Research Institute

http://www.epri.com http://www.epri.com

Select About EPRI or Global Climate Change Select About EPRI or Global Climate Change.

Edison Electric Institute Edison Electric Institute

http://www.eei.org http://www.eei.org

Select About EEI Select About EEI.

Nuclear Energy Institute Nuclear Energy Institute

http://www.nei.org http://www.nei.org

A wealth of nuclear information A wealth of nuclear information.

American Nuclear Society American Nuclear Society

http://www.ans.org http://www.ans.org

Select Public Information Select Public Information.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

http://www.ieee.org/portal/site http://www.ieee.org/portal/site

Select “journal or magazine.” Select “journal or magazine.”

American National Standards Institute American National Standards Institute

http://www.ansi.org http://www.ansi.org

Select About ANSI Select About ANSI.

American Nuclear Society Standards Committee American Nuclear Society Standards Committee Report of Activities 2007

http://www.ans.org/standards/resources/downloads/docs/comactivitiesreport2007.pdf http://www.ans.org/standards/resources/downloads/docs/comactivitiesreport2007.pdf

A comprehensive report that lists all ANS standards A comprehensive report that lists all ANS standards.

U.S. Nuclear Engineering Education: Status and Prospects 1990 U.S. Nuclear Engineering Education: Status and Prospects 1990 National Academy Press Washington, DC A study by a committee of the National Research Council

Educational Assistance Program Educational Assistance Program

http://www.nei.org http://www.nei.org

Select Search/INPO for information on National Academy for Nuclear Training Select Search/INPO for information on National Academy for Nuclear Training.

Nuclear Engineering Education Sourcebook Nuclear Engineering Education Sourcebook

http://www.ne.ncsu.edu/NE%20sourcebook/index.html http://www.ne.ncsu.edu/NE%20sourcebook/index.html

Includes links to lists of faculty in all institutions Includes links to lists of faculty in all institutions. Editors: Man-Sung Yim and John Gilligan.

Nuclear Engineering Education Research Nuclear Engineering Education Research (NEER)

http://www.ne.doe.gov/universityPrograms/neUniversity2d.html http://www.ne.doe.gov/universityPrograms/neUniversity2d.html

Select DOE program to support universities Select DOE program to support universities.

NERI Nuclear Energy Research Initiative NERI Nuclear Energy Research Initiative

http://nuclear.energy.gov/neri/neNERIresearch.html http://nuclear.energy.gov/neri/neNERIresearch.html

Descriptions of the three areas of investigation Descriptions of the three areas of investigation.

Rick Michal, February 2007 Rick Michal, INIE Funding: University Consortia Put Over $9 Million to Good Use Nuclear News February 200722- Included is an informative diagram of infrastructure

Energy Policy Energy Policy Act of 2005

www.epa.gov/oust/fedlaws/publ_109-058.pdf http://www.epa.gov/oust/fedlaws/publ_109-058.pdf

Full text of the law Full text of the law. Nuclear Matters in Sections 621-657.

Nuclear Giveaways Nuclear Giveaways

http://www.citizen.org/documents/NuclearEnergyBillFinal.pdf http://www.citizen.org/documents/NuclearEnergyBillFinal.pdf

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

http://www.ferc.gov http://www.ferc.gov

Select About FERC Select About FERC.

Jedruch, 1985 Jacek Jedruch, Nuclear Engineering Data Bases, Standards, and Numerical Analysis 1985 Van Nostrand Reinhold New York A useful collection of information that would be difficult to find elsewhere

References for the full text of laws related to nuclear power and radioactive waste as originally written appearing in United States Statutes at Large References for the full text of laws related to nuclear power and radioactive waste as originally written appearing in United States Statutes at Large, United States Government Printing Office. Most of the laws can be accessed by entering their title in Google.

Atomic Energy Act of 1946 August l, 1946 Atomic Energy Act of 1946 Public Law 585, 79th Congress August l, 1946

Atomic Energy Act of 1954 August 30, 1954 Atomic Energy Act of 1954 Public Law 703, 83rd Congress August 30, 1954

Price-Anderson Act September 2, 1957 Price-Anderson Act Public Law 85-256, 85th Congress September 2, 1957

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 Public Law 91-190, 91st Congress January 1, 1970

Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 October 11, 1974 Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 Public Law 93-438, 93rd Congress October 11, 1974

Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 August 4, 1977 Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 Public Law 95-91, 95th Congress August 4, 1977

Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (of 1980) Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (of 1980) Public Law 99-240, 96th Congress December 22, 1980

Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 January 7, 1983 Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 Public Law 97-425, 97th Congress January 7, 1983

Low-Level Radioactive Waste Amendments Act of 1985 January 15, 1986 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Amendments Act of 1985 Public Law 99-240, 99th Congress January 15, 1986

Energy Policy Act of 1992 October 24, 1992 Energy Policy Act of 1992 Public Law 102-486, 102nd Congress October 24, 1992

Energy Policy Act of 2005 August 10, 2005 Energy Policy Act of 2005 Public Law 109-58, 109th Congress August 10, 2005