Index
additives, food 320–321; see also adulteration
adulteration of food; before 1850 87–101; 1850–1914 216–237; post-war 320–321; legislation 227–234, 320–321; voluntary reform 222–227
Adulteration of Foods Act (1860) 228–229
Adulteration of Foods, Drink and Drugs Act (1872) 229–230
Advisory Committee on Nutrition 283
agricultural labourers:
1815–1850 21–35, living standards 28–35, wages 21, 24–25, 28; 1850–1914 132–155, 328, regional variations 141–144, 149–153, trade unions 134, 144, wages 110, 136–138, 149, 153–154
agriculture: ‘bondage’ system 34–35; depression 22–23; ‘Golden Age’ 134, 147; ‘health protective’ foods 257–258; and imports 108, 116, 118, 147; and population growth 9; post-Napoleonic Wars 132–155; wages 21, 24–25, 28, 110, 136–138, 149, 153–154; World War I 255–256; World War II 289
alcoholism 319
Allinson, Dr T.R. 236
Anti-Corn Law League 18
Arch, Joseph 138
aristocracy 65–66, 192–193; eating habits 197–209; see also upper classes
Army: fitness of recruits 61, 187, 254; supplies for 244–245
Ashley, Sir William 4
Asquith, H.H. 252
Assizes of Bread and Ale 87, 92, 94, 96
Atwater, Professor 154
Austen, Jane 67
Australia, imported meat from 116–117, 256
baking see bread; confectionery
Banks, J.A. 206
Barnett, Dr Margaret 252
Barnsby, Dr G. 108
Bartley, Sir George Christopher 145
Battiscombe, Georgina 204
beer: adulteration of 88–89, 92–93, 96–99, 220–221, 234–235; brewing industry 119–120; competition 96–97; consumption 16–17, 49–50, 107, 112–113, 115, 175–176, 319; home-brewing 5–7, 92–93; see also public houses
Beerhouse Act (1830) 16, 49, 96, 220
Beeton, Mrs Isabella, menus etc. 197–200, 204–208
Beveridge, Sir William, later Baron 244, 245, 248
Billingsgate market 13
Bird, Alfred 214
biscuits 123
Black Report, Inequalities in Health (1980) 315
Blincoe, Robert 46
Boer War, fitness of recruits 61, 187, 236, 243
books, cookery and domestic
economy: for middle and upper classes 69–73, 76–79, 197–199, 204–210, 265, 318; for working classes 27, 43, 165–166
Booth, General William 179, 195–196
Boyd Orr, John 269–270, 271–272, 274
Bransby, Dr E.R. 296
bread: adulteration of 88, 91–92, 96, 217, 221, 227, 232–234; and agricultural labourers 140–141; Assize 92, 94, 96; baking industry 120–122; brown 4, 236–237; consumption of 4, 9–10, 112–113, 140–141, 187, 282, 306–308; home-baking 5, 27; and imported wheat 116; wartime 247, 291–92; white 4, 121, 236–237, 308; wholemeal 236–237
Bread and Food Reform League 236
breakfast: cereals 214, 261, 264; Royal Court 194, 266; surveys 275–276, 314–315; upper classes 67
brewing see beer
Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme 83, 199
British Association for the Advancement of Science 112
British Medical Association 271
British Restaurants 293
Brockway, Fenner 286
Buchanan, Ian 124
budgets, household:
before 1850, agricultural
labourers 25, middle and upper classes 75–79, town workers 50–60;
1850–1914, agricultural
labourers 146–155, town workers 169–188;
between the wars 266, 269–280;
Burn, J.D. 223
butter: adulteration of 221;
consumption of 113, 125, 142, 249, 266–268, 305; import of 257
Buxton, C.R. 153
Caird, Sir James 10, 11, 136–137
calories: agricultural labourers’ diets 23, 142–143, 154; town workers’ diets 59, 179; World War I rationing 245, 247, 249–250; between the wars 266; World War II rationing 291–292; post-war 323
Cambridgeshire 152
canteens, industrial 247–248, 293
Cantlie, James 187
capitalism, and growth of the middle classes 65–66 see also industrialization
Cardiff, children’s nutrition 272–273
cereals 9–10; breakfast 214, 261, 264
Chadwick, Edwin 158
Chaloner, Dr W.H. 14
Chamberlain, Joseph 119
cheese 113, 125, 142, 257, 266–268, 305
Child, Samuel 92
Child Poverty Action Group 324
children: care of 162, 164, 251; diet of 109, 188, 243–244, 251, 272–273, 315–316; growth of 296–297; infant mortality 61, 124–125, 187, 285–286, 296; school milk and meals 188, 243, 285, 292–293, 315–316
chocolate 124
Churchill, Sir Winston S. 293
Clapham, Dr J.H. 6
Clark, Colin 260
Clarke, Allen 178
class: and consumption 66–67, 270, 274–283, 322–324; and health 270, 315, 326
coal: mining 52–54, 169–170; prices 5_6, 164–165
Cobbett, William 5, 6, 10, 25–27
coffee: adulteration of 99, 217, 221; consumption of 15–16, 113–114, 268, 306, 308; -houses 81, 114–115
Cole, G.D.H. 66
Colmore, G. 210
colouring, food 100, 217–218, 224–227, 321–322; see also additives; adulteration
Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) 308, 327
competition 95–97, 256; see also retailing
consumption levels: 1850–1914 112–114, 151, 185–186; 1909–1934 267–268; 1934–1938 259; 1950–1985 302–309; and class 66–67, 270, 274–283, 322–324; see also foods by name
‘convenience’ foods 307, 309–310
cooking, Victorian era 164–165
Co-operative Movement 125–126, 225–226, 259, 262
Copley, Esther 27
cotton industry 48, 56, 178, 268; and American Civil War 161–162, 174
Crawford, Sir William, food survey 274–283
Crawford, W.S., Ltd 313
Crimean War 30
Customs and Excise Department 13, 94, 99, 234; see also tariffs
dairy produce see butter; milk; etc.
Dana, Richard 198
David, Elizabeth 318
Davies, Rev. David 9, 10, 22, 23
Davies, Maude F. 154
death: by food adulteration 97, 100, 227; infant mortality 61, 124–125, 187, 285–286, 296; malnutrition and 270–271; by starvation 54, 180–181
dehydration of food 291
De Quincey, Thomas 69
Devonport, Lord 245
diet see food
dietetics 236
Digby, Dr Anne 33
dinner: evening 68–69; menus 77–78, 207–208; midday 276–277, 313; middle classes 207–208; post-war 314; Royal Court 68, 81, 193–197
dinner-parties 67, 192–193; menus 72–74, 79–81, 199–202 middle classes 206 Regency 70–71 World War II 294
distribution, food see retailing; transport
doctors see medical profession
domestic industry 140, 144, 171–174
domestic servants 39, 75–77, 79, 192, 210–211
D’Oyly Carte Company 203
Driver, Christopher 318
Drouitt’s Institution 97
drugs see under adulteration
Drummond, Sir John 243, 245, 248, 290–291
Dukinfield, family budgets 56–59
Durham 140
East Anglia: agricultural labourer’s diet 31–33, 138; poverty and riots 24, 31, 35
Education Code (1876) 165
Education (Medical Inspections) Act (1907) 188, 243
Education (Provision of Meals) Act(1906) 188, 243
eggs 113, 256, 266–268, 305–306
Elizabeth II, Queen 266
Engels, Friedrich 4, 38, 44, 57–58
Equitable Pioneers of Rochdale 125, 226
Ernie, Rowland Prothero, Baron 21
Escoffier, Auguste 203
‘European’diet 311
European Economic Community (EEC), membership of 327–328
families, size of: and diet 271–272; and Poor Relief 24; post-war 302, 303, 323–324
farming see agriculture; agricultural labourer
fats 9, 266–268, 292; see also butter; etc.
Felix (chef) 73
Fielding, Sir Charles 255
Filby, Dr Frederick A. 87
fish: canned 213; and chips 117–118, 128; consumption of 12–13, 113–114, 117–118, 266–268, 305, 307; transport of 8, 12
fitness, national: and Boer War 61, 187, 236, 243; policy 254–255; and World War I 61, 254
Flux, Sir Alfred 113
food:
1815–1850, adulteration 86–101, agricultural labourers 21–35, industrialization 3–18, town workers 38–61, upper classes 64–83
1850–1914, adulteration 216–237, living standards, supplies, etc. 107–128, rural areas 132–155, towns 158–188, upper classes 192–214
1914–present day, World War I 243–252, between the wars 254–287, World War II 289–297, 1945–1985 300–328
Food Act (1984) 321
Food Advisory Committee 321
Food and Drugs Act (1955) 320
Food Policy Unit, Manchester Polytechnic 325
foreign food 312; French cooking 70–73, 79–80, 193
Francatelli, Charles Elme 42, 81, 166
Fraser, Rev. J. 144
free trade: and adulteration 94; and agriculture 108, 147; end of 256–257; see also tariffs
French, Henry Leon 290
French cooking 70–71, 73, 79–80, 193
fruit: canned 213, 261; consumption of 113, 266–268, 305; imported 119, 256–257
Fuller, Prof. John 318
Game laws 139
Germany: meat imports from 116; trade 108; World War I 244–246; World War II 291–292, 296
Gilbert’s Act (Poor Law) 24
Girdlestone, Canon Edward 134, 147
Goderich, Viscount 228
Good Food Guide 318
Goulburn, Henry 96
government, food policy: adulteration 227–234, 320–321; World War I 244–252; between the wars 285–286; World War II 289–297, 303; school meals and milk 188, 243, 285, 292–293, 315–316; present day 327; see also Parliamentary Committees: Royal Commissions
Great Exhibition 160
groceries: adulteration 97, 225; branded goods 261–262; retailing 144–145, 125–128, 258–261, 311
Halsey, Prof. A.H. 300
Halsham, John 139
Hamill, Dr J.M. 236
Hasbach, DrW. 134
Hassall, Dr A.H. 97, 99, 100, 216–218, 222–228
health: and adulteration (q.v.) 223–225, 228–229; and class 270, 315, 326; and diet 326–327; and malnutrition 31, 180–181, 243, 270–271, 286
Heath, Francis George 132–133, 145–146, 148, 153
Heinz, H.J. 214
Hemans, Felicia 132
Henderson, Dr W.O. 14
Hewitt, Dr Margaret 124, 164, 166
Hobson, John A. 167
Hollingsworth, Dorothy 248
Holyoake, George Jacob 125, 226
Home and Colonial Stores 123, 127, 259–260
Hooper, Mary 208
Hopkins, F.G. 236
Horner, Leonard 44
Horniman, John 126
horses, keeping 79
Hovis Bread Company 237
Howard, Dr 54
Hoyle, William 175
Hudson, W.H. 133
Huntley & Palmer 123
imports, food 9, 11–14, 115–119, 255–259, 289–290; duties 13–14, 115, 160–161
incomes see wages
Industrial Revolution 3, 38, 107
industrial unrest 246
industrialization 3–4, 38–39, 107, 162
infant: mortality 61, 124–125, 187, 285–286, 296; welfare see under children
influenza epidemic 248
Jago, William 122
jam 124
Jefferies, Richard 133
Johnson, Dr Samuel 67
Jones, Caradog 284
Kaye-Smith, Sheila 294
Kebbel, T.E. 144
Kelloggs, breakfast survey 314
Kemble, Fanny 68
Kenney-Herbert, A. 202
Kitchiner, Dr William 69, 70, 76–77
labourers see agricultural labourers; town workers
Lancashire: agriculture 144; cotton industry 56–57, 161–162, 174
Lancet, campaign against food adulteration 216, 218, 222–225
Lankester, Dr Edward 227
Layard, G.S. 210
LePlay 170
Lewis, R., and Maude, J. 65
Licensing Act (1921) 262
Lipton, Thomas 123, 127, 259–260
living standards: agricultural labourers 28–35; and industrialization 39–41, 158–159; 1850–1914 107–115; post-war 300–301
London 7, 120, 168, 176, 278; child health 250–251; food adulteration 220, 223; hotels 203–204; poverty 179–181
Lovett, William 52
Lyons, Joseph, teashops 122, 128, 264
Macaulay, Thomas Babington 68
McCulloch, J.R. 90
McGonigle, DrG.C.M. 271
McGovern, George, US Senator 326–327
McKenzie, J.C. 311
McNab, Dr Henry 48
Mallock, W.H. 110
malnutrition, and physical deterioration 31, 180–181, 243, 270–271, 286 see also starvation
Malthus, Rev. Thomas 24
Manchester 3; retail prices 18, 43; working-class budgets 56–60
Mann, H.H. 153
Marcet, Dr 223
margarine 114, 123, 249, 266–268, 304–306
Marx, Karl 108
Mauduit, Vicomte de 294
Mayhew, Henry 13, 91, 117, 126, 167
Maypole Dairy Company 123, 127, 260
meals: agricultural labourers 143–144; ‘ideal’ 316–317; middle classes 210–213; patterns 313–314; Royal Court 68, 81, 193–197; school 188, 243, 293, 315–316; see also breakfast; dinner; etc.
meat: and agricultural labourers 141–142, 152; consumption of 11–12, 112–113, 141–142, 249, 266–268, 283, 305, 307; imported 11–12, 116–117, 256–257; transport of 7–8; World War I 247, 249
medical profession: and adulteration 223–225, 228–229; government health policies 244; and nutrition 244, 271–273, 284–285
Medical Research Committee 244, 284
Ménager, M., Royal Chef 194
Metropolitan Brewing Company 225
microwave ovens 301
middle classes 39, 65–66, 265; budgets 265; cookery books 69–73, 76–79, 197–199, 204–210, 265; food of 206–212
Middlesborough, poverty in 180, 183–184
milk: adulteration of 98, 217, 227; bars 264; for children 162, 164; condensed 124–125; consumption of 114, 124, 142, 152, 266–268, 304–305; in schools 285, 292; supply of 177; transport of 8
milling 120–121, 259; and adulteration 95, 236
Millstone, Dr Erik 321
Ministry of Food: World War I 248; World War II 290–291, 293, 297
Mitchell, John 91–92, 221, 222
monarchy see Edward; George; Victoria
monopoly, and adulteration 95
Montizambert, Elizabeth 263
Morrison, W.S. 290
munitions workers, diet of 247
National Advisory Council on Nutrition Education (NACNE) 308, 327
National Catering Inquiry 318
National Food Survey Reports 304, 313, 322–323, 324–325
National Insurance Act (1911) 188
Neild, William 56–59 New Zealand, imports from 117, 256, 296
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, diets 273–274
Newnham-Davis, Lieut-Col 203–204, 318
Northumberland: agricultural labourers 31, 34–35, 140–141, 150; miners 52–54, 169–170
Nottinghamshire: agricultural
labourers 143
framework-knitters 51
obesity 311
Oddy, Prof. Derek J. 9, 25, 113–114
Odling, Prof. William 227
Oldknow, Samuel 47
Orr, John Boyd 269–270, 271–272, 274
Osborne, Rev. Lord Sidney Godolphin 133, 138–139
Overcrowding Survey Report 271
Owen, Robert 48
Panton, J.E. 209
Paris, J.A. 90
Parliamentary Papers and Reports: (1815) Select Committee on Assize of Bread 92; (1824) Select Committee on Rate of Agricultural Wages 24–25; (1831–1832) Select Committee on Regulation of Factories 47; (1834) Select Committee on Handloom Weavers‘ Petitions 13; (1836) Select Committee on Agricultural Distress 18; (1837–1838) Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Poor Law Amendment Act 28; (1842) Royal Commission on Children’s Employment (Mines) 47; (1843) Select Committee on Employment of Women and Children in Agriculture 31; (1850) Select Committee of the House of Lords on Sale of Beer 220; (1853–1854) Select Committee on Public Houses 220–221; (1855–1856) Select Committee on Adulteration of Food 218–219, 224, 227; (1862) Report on Grievances of the Journeymen Bakers 96, 122, 227; (1863) Report on Food of the Poorer Labouring Classes 111, 139–144, 162–165, 171–174; (1867–1870) Reports of Commissions on Children’s Young Persons’ and Women’s Employment in Agriculture 144; (1871) Commissions on the Truck System 45–46 (1874) Select Committee on Adulteration of Food Act, 1872 230; (1880–1881) Annual Reports of Local Government Board 231–234; (1882) Royal Commission on Agricultural Depression 148; (1893) Royal Commission on Labour (Agricultural Labourer) 149–150; (1893) Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws 128; (1899) Report on the Aged Deserving Poor 180; (1901–1903) Royal Commission on Arsenical Poisoning 235; (1903) Report on British and Foreign Trade and Industry 151; (1904) Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration 180, 187; (1905–1909) Royal Commission on the Poor Law 180; (1917) Royal Commission on Industrial Unrest 246; (1918) Report on Working-class Cost of Living 250–251
Peckham Pioneer Health Centre 270
Pereira, Jonathan 90
Phillips, George 91, 99, 165, 221
Piachaud, David 324
Pilgrim Trust 272
pleasure gardens 168
poaching 139
‘points’ scheme of rationing 293–295
Poor Laws 23–24; reform, 1834 28; Speenhamland system 5, 24
population: agricultural 134–135; and employment 163; and industrialization 3, 38; and overcrowding 271; post-war 301; upper and middle classes 65–66
Postgate, Dr John 223–224, 227, 229
Postgate, Raymond 318
potatoes 10–11; chips 117–118; consumption 27, 113–114, 141, 249, 266–268; crisps 261
poverty: and agriculture 28–35, 133–139; and industry 41–42, 109; ‘line’ 109, 283–284; town workers 179–187, 211; York survey 179–180, 181–182, 211; 1815–1850 28–35, 41–42; 1850–1914 109, 133–139, 179–187; between the wars 283–284; 1965–1983 323–324
prices:
food 15–18, 185–186, fluctuations 28, 42–43, Napoleonic Wars and 21–22, World Wars 250, 292, 295;
processed foods 309
proteins: before 1850 9; 1850–1914 59, 142–143, 154; between the wars 266–268; World War II rationing 292
public houses: food sold 128, 168, 262, 319; reform movement 176; ‘tying’ of 95, 127–128
Pükler-Muskau, Prince 71
Purdy 28
purity of food 225–226, 230–235, 319–322
rationing: World War I 245–247, 250; World War II 291–295; post-war 303
Reading, poverty in 180
recipe books see books
refrigeration 117, 1971, 256; see also frozen food
Renner, H.D. 167
rents: agriculture 25, 31–32; towns 51–60 passim, 170
restaurants 82–83, 262–263, 317–318
retailing, food 44–45, 125–128, 167, 259–260
Rhondda, David Thomas, Viscount 246, 248, 252
Rice, Margery Spring 286
Richardson, Dr T.L. 22
Ridley, George 220
Ritz, César 203
road-houses 263
Roseveare, M.P. 294
Rowntree, B. Seebohm, studies: agricultural labourers 154–155; poverty line 109, 284; York 179–180, 181–182, 211
Runciman, Walter, Baron 244
Rundell, Mrs Maria Elizabeth 52–53, 70, 75–76, 79
Ruskin, John 4
Russia, influence on meal service 200
Sadler, Michael 47
St Helier, Lady 195
Sale of Food and Drugs Act (1875) 230–232
Sale of Food and Drugs Act (1899) 234
Sanitary Commission Bread Company 225
schools: meals 188, 243, 293, 315–316; milk 285, 292
Scotland 29
Scott, Wentworth Lascelles 229
Senn, Herman 202
shops, food 44–45, 125–128, 167, 259–260
Simmons, P.L. 99
Simon, André 262
slimming 314
Smiles, Samuel 175
Smith, Adam 94
Smith, Dr Edward, studies: agricultural labourers’ diet 111–112, 140–144, 328 minimum subsistence levels 139–140; national food inquiry 139–144; publications 166, 223; Reports to Privy Council 162–165, 171–174 town workers’diet 162–165
Smithfield market 12
Social Democratic Federation 179
Society of Public Analysts 98–99, 231–232
Somerville, Alexander 11, 58–60, 138
Soyer, Alexis 74–75, 77–79; publications 74, 166; soup kitchens 42, 60, 74
Spencer, Edward 168
spirits, consumption of 115, 175, 319
Staffordshire 49, 140, 153, 229
state, food policy see government
Statistical Society surveys: household budgets 176–178; Lancashire cotton workers 56–59
Sturgeon, Launcelot 71
sugar: adulteration of 218;
consumption of 14–15, 113–114, 142, 249, 266–268, 283, 305–307;
imports 257
Sugar Commission 244
Sumner, John Hamilton, Viscount 250
supplies of food see agriculture; imports; shops; etc., also bread; meat; milk; etc.,
tariffs, food 13–14, 115, 160–161, 256–257; and adulteration 94, 97
tastes 4, 66–67, 310–311, 316–317
tea: adulteration of 89, 91, 217–220, 226, 234; ‘afternoon’ 68, 278, 313–314, 316; consumption of 4, 14–16, 113–114, 268, 306, 308; ‘high’ 276–279; imports 118–119; retailing of 126–127, 226; teashops 128, 264, 316
technology: domestic appliances 301–302; food industry 119–125
Technology Assessment Consumerism Centre (TACC) 326
Temperance Movement 50, 175–176
Thompson, Sir Henry 166
town workers:
1800–1850 38–61, budgets 50–60;
1850–1914 158–188, budgets 169–188;
see also middle classes; urbanization
trade unions: agriculture 134, 144; factories 107, 161
transport of food 7–8, 12, 177
Tschumi, Gabriel, Royal Chef 194, 266
Ude, Louis Eustache 73
unemployment: agriculture 23–24; towns 41, 108; between the wars 268–269, 283–284; 1945–1985 300, 324–325
United States of America: Civil War, and UK cotton industry 161–162, 174; diet 311, 326–327; imports from 11, 116–117, 214, 261, 291
Universal Purveyor Company 225
upper classes: 1800–1850 64–83; 1850–1914 108–109, 192–214; between the wars 264–265
urbanization 3–4, 7, 38; see also town workers
vegetables: consumption of 30, 113, 266–268, 305; imported 257; transport of 8;
Victoria, Queen, and food 68, 73, 81, 193–195
villages, and industrialization 3–6
wages: agriculture 21, 24–25, 28, 110, 136–138, 149, 153–154; industry 40, 110–111, 158–159; national income distribution 65, 109, 274
Walker, Caroline 321
Walker, Thomas 80
Walsh, J.H. 206
Wanklyn, Professor 232
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice 188
welfare schemes 168–169, 187–188, 243, 285–286
Westmorland 140
wheat 4, 9, 13, 116, 244, 256–257
Wilbraham, Anne 248
Williams, Prof. E.F. 11
Wilson, Dr George 16
wine 80, 113, 319; adulteration 86
Winter, J.M. 251
women: agricultural work 144; domestic work 213, 302; factory work 44, 159; maternal mortality 270–271; and poverty 286; shopping 261; upper classes 68
Woolton, Lord 291
working classes see agricultural labourers; town workers World War I 243–252; consumption 248–250; food control 243–247, 250; munitions work 147; nutrition 244, 247–248; unfit conscripts 61, 254
World War II 289–297; food control 289–295; nutrition 295–296; prices 297
Yates, May 236
York, poverty in 179–180, 181–182, 211
Young, Arthur 137