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Appendix: Reference Material

This appendix contains some additional useful information regarding various projects in this book.

Soldering Safety

Soldering can be an enjoyable experience, but occasionally a difficult soldered connection can also be a frustrating experience. These tips will help to make it a safe experience. First, make sure you understand the basics of soldering. If unsure, take a basic class in electronics :

Practice on scrap wires.
Use fixtures or objects to hold the pieces in the proper configuration.
Avoid breathing the fumes from the soldering iron.
Always remember the soldering iron tip and recently heated soldered connections are very hot.
Always remember to wear safety glasses to protect your eyes.
Remove flammable objects from the area.

General Shop Safety

This section contains some good shop practices to keep the reader safe:

Always, always use eye protection; it is amazing the number of times something will come loose when working on it.
Use extreme care when handling sharp objects like saws, knives, or screwdrivers. Again, when using these items, you can slip or lose control and accidentally cut yourself.
Use caution and be very careful when using power tools. They are made to cut or remove metal or wood material. The reader’s hand is much softer material and will be easily cut or bruised.
Finally, it is a very good idea to stop before doing a job and think about what could go wrong. Ask questions like “Is that frayed electrical cord going to short out?” or “Is that box balanced on top of things going to fall when I work under it?” This is the start of good job hazard analysis and is very important to work safely.

Manufacturing Techniques

The force sensor used in the zero gravity and friction experiments needs to have wires soldered to be able to connect it to the Arduino. Figure A-1 shows how the sensor and wires were held in place to do the soldering using a piece of scrap wood and some tape.

../images/488244_1_En_BookBackmatter_Fig1_HTML.jpg — Figure A-1
Soldering Technique for Force Sensor

Soldering

Tips (if the researcher is unfamiliar with soldering, please read section “Soldering Safety” first):

1.
Start on one wire.
1. A.
  Strip the wires.
2. B.
  It is easier with these connections to bend up one lead at a time.
3. C.
  Solder the wires by touching the solder iron tip to the connection and then adding a little solder.
4. D.
  Move the shrink tubing up the sensor to cover the solder joint. Make sure it goes up to the sensor.
5. E.
  Use a heat gun to melt the shrink tubing. The soldering iron can be used, but be very careful to only touch it very lightly, and move it quickly away from the tip.
2.
Repeat on the other wire.
Another slightly tricky soldering job is the wire harness to the MCP9700 sensor used in the rod conduction project and the convection project. Figure A-2 shows the assembled sensor. The authors found the best way to solder this is to bend one leg up, slide the heat shrink tubing onto the wire, make the solder connection, slide the heat shrink tubing down, and shrink it. Finally , bend it back in line with the others. Bending the leg up gives room to work. Be careful to not break the wire. Do the other two connections the same way. Make sure not to break the leg off the transitor.
Figure A-2
MCP9700 Temperature Sensor and Wire Harness

Basic Arduino and Raspberry Pi Python Commands

The following list is a handy starting point to understand some common Arduino and Raspberry Pi Python commands. It is meant to help someone very new to these devices get a basic understanding of these commands.

Some Key Arduino Code Commands

The following code commands are used extensively in most Arduino programs. This list is a good place to start when learning how to program an Arduino:

Int: Defines a variable as an integer.
#include: Used to designate additional libraries to be used by code.
Serial.begin: Starts up serial communication and sets the data rate. Typically, we use it at rate 9600 baud.
Float: Sets up floating point values for numbers used in the code.
AnalogRead: Reads values from the selected analog port.
Print: Prints data to the serial port.
Println: Prints a blank line to the serial port in addition to what is in (“”).
Delay: This command halts the Arduino from doing anything for the allotted time in msec.
Return: This is used to return to the caller with a value. For example, X = Math.add(2+3) will yield X = 5.
Void: This sets up a function to not pass a value back to the caller, for example, public void functions(). X = functions() will throw an error in the compiler to remind the programmer to not expect a value.

Some Key Raspberry Pi Code Commands

The following code commands are used extensively in most Raspberry Pi programs. This list is a good place to start when learning how to develop Raspberry Pi programs:

Import: Pull a third-party library which has its own set of code or function.
def: Declare a function name and parameters.
while: Do something while conditions are still true.
print: Print to terminal a series of characters commonly referenced as string as an integer.

There are a lot of resources online that can help the reader gain an understanding of these and other commands. The Arduino site and the Raspberry Pi site are good places to get more information on commands and the format required so that they work.

3D Printing

This is a very new and exciting technology. There is a bit of a learning curve ; however, there are a lot of helpful resources available including online help and maker spaces, and some libraries now have 3D printers too.

The authors first used the 3D printers at a local library to get experience and then purchased a small 3D printer as the price came down (Figure A-3). This technique has brought the concept of the Star Trek replicator to life.

../images/488244_1_En_BookBackmatter_Fig3_HTML.jpg — Figure A-3
Low-Cost 3D Printer

Computer-Aided Design Options

3D printing requires a special type of file format. Typically it is an “.stl” file format. The authors have not tried all of the following tools listed but have heard that they can be used to create the files needed for 3D printing.

Often, each CAD system operates a little differently, so the reader is encouraged to try out a few and determine which one they find easier to use:

Blender
FreeCAD
Fusion 360
Tinkercad
SketchUp

Once the .stl file is created, then this file will need to be loaded into a slicer program. This tool takes the solid object and breaks it down into a form that the 3D printer can use to create each slice. A popular slicer program is CURA which supports many of the common 3D printers.

Project Management for Engineering

There are many different project management scheduling tools : Gantt charts, waterfall, and others. They are very useful to lay out the project in a nice organized fashion and helpful to ensure completion on schedule. There is a balance between the schedule and the real work being accomplished. For small projects, a very detailed schedule may actually hinder progress by taking resources away from real work. However, on a big project, a detailed Gantt chart (Figure A-4) may actually ensure success by capturing all of the critical tasks needed. These tools are very useful for engineering projects.

../images/488244_1_En_BookBackmatter_Fig4_HTML.jpg — Figure A-4
Example Gantt Schedule

Decision Analysis for Engineering

Comparing options and determining the correct choice to make is a key aspect of decision analysis . One technique is to evaluate various factors and determine a comparative measure on these key factors. Pugh analysis is one example of this technique (Table A-1).

Table A-1

Example Pugh Option Analysis

Factors	Base Case	Option 1	Option 2	Option 3
Price	Datum	Plus	Minus	Minus
Reliability	Datum	Minus	Minus	Plus
Annual cost	Datum	Equal	Plus	Equal
Ease of use	Datum	Minus	Plus	Equal
Options	Datum	Equal	Equal	Plus
Score	0	-1	0	1

Thermal Conductivity Coefficients

The following are some thermal conductivity coefficients for various materials. Data is from source [1]:

Copper thermal conductivity coefficients h = 380 Joule/sec-m-^oC
Aluminum thermal conductivity coefficients h = 200 Joule/sec-m-^oC
Steel thermal conductivity coefficients h = 40 Joule/sec-m-^oC
Glass thermal conductivity coefficients h = 0.84 Joule/sec-m-^oC
Brick thermal conductivity coefficients h = 0.84 Joule/sec-m-^oC
Wood thermal conductivity coefficients h = 0.1 Joule/sec-m-^oC

Coefficients of Friction

The following are some frictional coefficients for various materials. Data is from source [1]:

Wood on wood
μs = 0.4
μk = 0.2
Metal on metal (lubricated)
μs = 0.15
μk = 0.07
Steel on steel (unlubricated)
μs = 0.7
μk = 0.6
Rubber on dry concrete
μs = 1.0
μk = 0.8

Astronomy Terms

Alti-azimuth: Two-axis telescope mount that when controlled moves vertically and rotates to the position. It tracks the apparent star motion due to the Earth’s rotation by moving in both vertical and horizontal rotating directions.
Aperture: A hole or opening that light passes through, which aids in controlling the amount of light entering a camera or telescope.
Equatorial telescope mount : This is a fairly simple telescope mount that has one axis pointing at the North Star and then needs only to rotate around that axis to compensate for the Earth's rotation.
Focal length: Measure of a telescope that when combined with the lens provides a measure of the magnification. Physically, it is the distance between a lens or curved mirror and its focal point.
Terminator: The line between night and day on the moon or Earth.
Telescope yoke: The structure on a telescope , commonly “U” shaped, that supports the telescope and other equipment, usually enabling telescope adjustments in the vertical axis.

Specifications of the Meade ETX-60AT

The Meade ETX-60AT (Figure A-5) is a nice little telescope that does not require much storage space and can be set up quickly. It has the Autostar computer controller that allows it to track the stars as the Earth rotates. For its size, this telescope does an amazing magnification job. It shows a lot of detail on several solar system planets and the moon.

../images/488244_1_En_BookBackmatter_Fig5_HTML.jpg — Figure A-5
Meade ETX-60AT

It is no longer available directly from Meade, but ETX-60AT and ETX-70AT scopes are on sale on eBay, ranging in price from $65 to $100. The clamping mechanism and shelf described in Chapter 7 should work with either the ETX-60AT or ETX-70AT. By adding the Raspberry Pi 3 ($185) and its hardware to one of these telescopes, the astronomer has an updated, modern telescope with minicomputer, touchscreen, and camera for $270. A new equivalent telescope without a camera costs about $300–350.

Meade ETX-60AT telescope specifications :

Aperture: 60mm
Focal length: 350mm
Maximum practical visual power: 200×
Optical tube dimensions: 3.6˝ × 14.6˝
Overall dimensions: 15.9˝ × 7˝ × 9˝
Telescope and Autostar weight: 6.7 lbs (8 lbs with Pi)
Alti-azimuth drive system using servo motors and encoders
Battery life for Autostar: ≈ 20 hrs

Setup, Updates, and Repairs

The Autostar control (Figure A-6) system requires a little time for the novice astronomer to develop utilization proficiency, but once she/he becomes familiar with it, it works well.

../images/488244_1_En_BookBackmatter_Fig6_HTML.jpg — Figure A-6
Autostar Controller

After stepping through the initial screen and time setup, do a telescope alignment. The first step is to align the telescope so it is horizontal and pointing at the North Star. The Autostar will prompt the astronomer through the next steps, but basically it will move to a bright stellar object. The astronomer indicates it is good. Then it will move to a second bright stellar object. After the astronomer indicates it is good again, it will tell you it is ready to find another object and it is ready to use.

The software in the Autostar contains a catalog of stellar objects and can be updated so that orbits and information are current.

See the Meade web site for instructions and what is required to do this update: www.meade.com/support/auto.html .

Additionally, if you purchase a used telescope, verify that all the motors and adjustment functions are working. If the drives on your Meade telescope do not work, the following web site can help with repairs: www.youtube.com/watch?v=qbNwBWB29ow .

You can also find other videos by searching YouTube. They show how to repair the drives that move the telescope vertically in each yoke and how to repair the drive that rotates the telescope around in the base.

Helpful Books

D. Giancoli, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008.

E. Premeaux and B. Evans, Arduino Projects to Save the World, New York: Apress, 2011.

F. Kreith, Principles of Heat Transfer, New York: Harper & Row, 1973.

M. Banzai, Getting Started with Arduino, Sebastopol: O’Reilly, 2011.

M. L. James, G. M. Smith, and J. C. Wolford, Applied Numerical Methods for Digital Computation, New York: Harper & Row, 1977.

S. Monk, Programming Arduino Next Steps, New York: McGraw Hill, 2014.

Index

Acceleration projects

ADXL345 sensor

data

graph

LCD

parts

sensor to computer

swinging bat

Alti-azimuth

Aluminum rod conduction heat transfer

data

digital/mercury thermometer

experiment/sensor assembly

K factor

parabolic partial differential equation

spreadsheet simulation

temperature readings

temperature sensors

Analog device ports

Analog to digital converter (ADC)

Arduino

components/hardware

data logging

analog sensor

excel graph

highlighted data

parts

sensor code

serial monitor

temperature sensor

IDE

key points

microcontroller

open source tool

ports

setup

Uno

Astro-Pi telescope

Auto-format command

Base sensor

Battery power port

Buoyancy of air

Arduino

Raspberry Pi

temperature changes

Calculus

definition

method

Camera

building case

CAD

3D Printing

final assembly

MakerBot slicer software

screw holes

fixed Clamp

modifications

movable Clamp

power cables

RIVNUT/bracket

shelf assembly

Capturing counts

Arduino

data

infrared sensors

occurrences, events

parts

SN105_capturing counts code

Code commands

Arduino

Raspberry Pi

Code debugger

Computer-aided design (CAD) software

Computer port

Convection heat transfer

data

experiment

MCP9700 temperature sensors code

movement of gas/fluid

parts

schematic experiment

Data logging, Raspberry Pi

advanced 1 wire code/data file

basic 1 wire code

configuration

doe modules

DS18B20 temperature sensor

GPIO breakout boards

IO ports

Python 3 development tool

Star Trek tricoder

temperature sensor

Debian

Digital device ports

Dremel grinder tool

DS18B20 sensor

Effectors

Electronics

Equatorial telescope mount

Force/pressure

Arduino

calibration curve

data analysis

measurement

parts

SN104_Basic force sensor code

Friction

Frictional force

Arduino

operational schematic

Raspberry Pi

GPIO SPI clock connection/GPIO11

Graphical user interface (GUI)

Heat transfer

conduction

convection

mechanisms

radiation

working

High-definition multimedia interface (HDMI)

I, J, K

Inertia

Inferred measurement

Integrated circuit

Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)

Libre Word Processor

Light and Imaging, projects

heat transfer

SeeRadiation heat transfer

Raspberry Pi 3 case

Raspberry Pi camera system

SeeCamera system

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Liquid Crystal Display (LCDs)

Loop command

M, N, O

MakerBot slicer software

Manufacturing techniques

CAD system

decision analysis

3D printing

force sensor

Gantt schedule

MCP9700 temperature sensor/wire harness

project management scheduling tools

Pugh analysis

soldering safety

Mass

Master In Slave Out (MISO)

Master Out Slave In (MOSI)

MCP9700

Meade ETX-60AT telescope

Autostar computer controller

setup/update and repairs

specification

Momentum

P, Q

Partial differential equation (PDE)

pip command

Planetary Image Pre-processing/image stacking

Pressure

Radiation heat transfer

code, TSL 2591 light sensor

example

parts

photodiode

reflective coating

solar radiation

system set up

TSL 2591 light sensor

Raspberry Pi

experimental/hobbyist device

GPIO pins

I2C/SPI

keyboard configuration

modules

ports

power supply

spreadsheet

terms/definition

timing issue

Raspberry Pi Python GUI

image capture code

initiating GUI

parts

PI_SN003

Tkinter

rasp-config tool

Raspistill

capture image

commands

definition

image capture recap

terminal program command line

Registax

Resistor

Science/engineering projects

buoyancy

SeeBuoyancy of air

force/pressure

tools

Sensors

Sensor power ports

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocol

Shields/breakout boards

Sketch

Soldering safety

electronics

manufacturing techniques

shop safety

Star Trek

Statistics

STEM principles

T, U

Temperature

Tension load cell

Tension-measuring device

Thermal conductivity coefficients

Thonny development tool

Time/condition dependent

acceleration project

SeeAcceleration projects

concepts

conduction heat transfer

SeeAluminum rod conduction heat transfer

convection heat transfer

frictional force

SeeFrictional force

zero gravity

SeeZero gravity

Transistor

Velocity and acceleration

Video Capture GUI

4 ½-inch reflector

image creation and enhancement

image stacking

Meade ETX-60AT

Void loop

Voltage

W, X, Y

Window conduction heat transfer

data

hardware connection

high differential temperature

project

Raspberry Pi

RTC/SD card shield code

schematic

Zero gravity

data

force data graph

free body diagram

parts

project setup/schematic

tension sensor

upper U-bolt

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