Subject Index
A
Absenteeism, and organizational culture, 141
Affective Communication Test, 47
Alcoholics Anonymous: charismatic relationships in, 60; routinization in, 59
American Management Association, 153
Analogy, for strategic vision, 191–194
Apple Computer, charismatic leader of, 3
AT&T, Management Potential Study at, 218, 292
Attention, focused by visionary leader, 142
Authority: charismatic, 13–17, 59–60; in existing institutions, 21; and formal versus informal organization, 16–17; ideal types of, 13–14; rank versus personal, 14; rational-legal, 14–17; and rational versus heroic revolution, 14–15; stable versus transitory, 15–16; traditional, 14–17
B
Behavior: of charismatic leaders, 25, 26, 27, 28–29, 104–105; competencies trainable in, 313–319; consequences of, 147; dimensions of, 78–97, 104–105; and effectiveness, 98–121; exemplary, 317–318; formula for, 123; interactions of, 146–147; of leader, 98–121; social learning theory of, 298–299; of socialized and personalized leaders, 222–225; theories of, 25–31; of visionary leader, 142–148, 152–153
Black and Decker, and market competition, 131
C
Cabinet members, study of, as followers, 105–116
California: charisma and credibility study in, 68; Manson followers in, 50
California, Los Angeles, University of, and visionary leader, 145
Canada. See Quebec
Center for Creative Leadership, Looking Glass program of, 318
Change: and development, 280; and visionary leaders, 132, 134, 137, 138–139, 141
Charisma: accounting for limits of, 266–270; aftermath of, 58–62; antecedents of, 55–58; as attribution by followers, 79; background on, 237–240; behavioral dimensions of, 80–89; and collective power, 258–259, 261; and communion, 258, 261, 267–268; components of, 43, 90; concepts of, 105, 214–215, 216, 237, 256, 259, 271; conceptual framework for, 7–8; conclusions on, 249–250, 272–273; as constellation of behaviors, 89–92; creation of, 241, 272; and crisis solution, 55–57; distribution of, 60–62; emerging from routinization, 59–60; and future vision, 84–87; importance of, 2–6; legacy of concepts of, 42–46; levels of, 253, 256–259, 270; limits of, 213–275; mystical and fantasy aspects of, 53–54; in noncrisis conditions, 57–58; and office, 41–42, 59; as organizational form, 258–259, 261–263, 265, 267–269, 271; origins of, 237–252; perpetuation of, 228–229; and personal powers, 89, 93; phenomenon of, 6–8; potential for, detected early, 116–117; psychoanalytical approach to, 33–36, 239–250; religious concept of, 21–23, 43, 237; risk of, 272–273; routinization of, 33, 58–59; and sensitivity to environmental context, 82–84, 92–93; as social category, 256–257, 260, 265, 266–267, 270–271; as social relationship, 257–258, 260–261, 265, 266–268, 271; theory of, 13–19, 255–259; training, 312–319; transfer of, 253–275; transference and, 242–249; and transformational leadership, 61; as value free, 17; visionary, 57
Charismatic leaders and leadership: abilities in, 214; accounting for limits of, 266–270; attributes of, 46–49; background on, 1–2, 12–13, 40–42, 78–79; behavior and effectiveness of, 98–121; behavioral dimensions of, 78–97, 104–105; behavioral theories of, 25–31; behaviors of, 25, 26, 27, 28–29, 104–105; biographical and historical analyses of, 69, 166–194; case studies of, 20; characteristics of, 3–5, 44, 46–62, 325–328; in complex organizations, 62–64; components of, 325–326; concepts of, 238, 257; conceptual framework for, 79; conclusion on, 335; conditions requiring, 117; context related to, 331–332; and contingency theory of needs, 27–28; course of, 18; dark side of, 4–5; development of, 276–323; distance, fit, and vision theory of, 29–30, 62, 162–163; eloquence of, 49; empirical assessment of, 260–265; energy and activity level of, 49; evolving views of, 40–77; expressive behavior of, 47; field studies of, 28, 33; follower relationship with, 329–331; future research on, 8; and heroic revolution, 15; and historical moment, 240–242; hypothesis testing on, 92–93; identification with, 49–55, 220–221; and illusions, 242, 245, 249; implications of limits to transfer of, 270–272; implications for research and practice in, 92–95; implications of theory on, 18–19; influence process of, 80–89; and informal organization, 17; inner workings of, 34–36; insight of, 48; institutionalization of, 31–33; and internal conflict, 48–49, 328; issues of, 1–11, 334–335; laboratory studies of, 31, 64–66, 102; life span approach to, 276–308; locus of, 19–21, 23–24, 35–36; longitudinal study of, 253–275; management of, 334; and myth making, 239, 240–241; nature and dynamics of, 12–121; and noncharismatic, 30–31, 81–82, 83, 91; and order, 238–239; organizational behavior theories of, 23–26; in organizational context, 18–19; overview of, 8–10; and personal authority, 14; and personality, 19–21, 35; political science and sociological theories of, 19–23; and power needs, 125–127, 148–149, 327; psychoanalytical theories of, 33–36, 239–250; pure, 277, 283, 327, 335; qualities of, 327; research on, 64–70; risk taking by, 145–146, 318; routinized, 257–258; self-confidence of, 47–48; self-determination of, 48; in simulated business game, 69–70; socialized and personalized, 213–236; strategic vision of, 3, 122–212; study design and method for, 259–260; style differences of, 45–46; surveys and interviews on, 66–69; theoretical foundations of, 12–39; training for, 309–323; and transformational leadership, 334–335; and transitory authority, 15–16; trends in studying, 324–336; and trustworthiness, 143–144, 262; visionary, 122–163. See also Leader behavior
Chicago, University of, charismatic leader of 60
China, and charismatic tradition, 57
China, People's Republic of, routinization in, 58
Chippewa tribe, charismatic relationships in, 60
Chrysler Corporation: achieving vision at, 88; context of, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 206; turnaround of, 1–2, 60, 164, 185, 186, 189–194, 196–197, 207–208; visionary leader of, 124, 127, 142, 333
Cognitive skills: development of, 293–297; of followers, 54; of visionary leaders, 127–131, 149–150
Colleges, institutionalization of charisma in, 32
Communication: training in, 315–317; by visionary leader, 143, 153
Compliance: and social influence, 219; and transactional leaders, 220
Conservative Party (Canada), 181
Context: articulating, 86–87; characteristics of, 329; charismatic leader related to, 331–332; environmental, sensitivity to, 82–84, 92–93; followers related to, 332–333; institutional, 197–199; issue, 199–200; market, 200–201; personal, 201–206, 208; product, 200
Crisis: charisma in solving, 55–57; as context characteristic, 329; evaluation and detection of, training in, 314
D
Dana, visionary leader at, 124
Department of Education (Minnesota), 259–260, 263–265, 269
Development: analysis of, 276–308; assumptions of, 276–277, 279, 294; background on, 276–277; and challenges, 295–297; and change, 280; characteristics of, 281; conclusion on, 300–303; constructivist theory of, 286–288, 292–293; critique of, 277–279; emotional and cognitive, 293–297; framework for, 279–282; humanistic theory of, 285–286; levels of, 287–288; managerial, 117–118; overview of, 282–288; psychoanalytical theory of, 284–285, 287–288; research needed on, 301–303; retrospective study of, 388–293; and self-efficacy, self-management, and self-development, 297–300; and stress, 295; and time intervals, 278–279, 280, 281, 301–302; and transformational leaders, 281–288
Distance, and charismatic leadership, 29–30, 62
E
Economic Club of New York, 175
Egypt, secular and sacred pharoahs in, 23
Electronic Data Systems, charismatic leader of, 3
Eloquence, of charismatic leaders, 49
Employees: empowering, 126; ownership by, 146–147
Empowerment: of employees, 126; training in, 318–319
Energy and activity level, of charismatic leaders, 49
Entrepreneurship, by charismatic leaders, 3–4
Étapism, and strategic vision, 178–179, 180
Ethical issues, of training, 311, 319–321
Expressiveness, of charismatic leaders, 47
F
Failure, and charismatic authority, 16
Federal Express, charismatic leader of, 3
Fit: and charismatic leadership, 29–30; and strategic vision, 162–163
Followers: attribution by, 79; autonomous, 225–226, 296; cabinet members as, 105–116; characteristics of, 328–329; charismatic leaders related to, 329–331; cognitive aspects of, 54; context related to, 332–333; dependency needs of, 4–5, 245, 247; dynamic process of, 51–52; effects on, 69, 101–102, 105–106; emotional and cognitive development of, 293–297; habituated, 226; higher- and lower-order of needs of, 278, 301; identification with aggressor by, 249; and identification with leader, 49–55; infantile state of, 33–34; and locus of charisma, 24, 30–31; magnetizability of, 50; needs of, recognized, 223–224; projection by, 241–242, 243, 245, 248; regression of, 242, 244, 249–250; response of, 40, 225–228; self-development of, 299–300; self-efficacy of, 297–298, 300–301, 318–319; self-management of, 299; sensitivity to, 317; transactional theories of, 99–100; of transformational leaders, 225, 282–283; transformational theories of, 100–105
Ford Motor Company: and competition, 199; and context, 205; employees from, 190; Mustang at, 88, 185–189, 194, 207
Frank Perdue Chicken Farms, and visionary leader, 132, 133
G
General Electric Corporation, visionary leader of, 124, 131, 138–139, 144
General Motors: achieving vision at, 88, 89; competition with, 187, 188, 199
Germany, charisma hunger in, 56, 327
Goals: expressed by leaders, 223; succession of, 183; and visionary leaders, 132–133, 134, 137
Governor's Discussion Group (Minnesota), 259
Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 49, 73
Guyana, Jones cult in, 4, 227, 273
H
I
IBM, visionary leader of, 124
Identification: with charismatic leaders, 49–55, 220–221; and perpetuation of charisma, 228; and social influence, 219; and transformational leadership, 221
Impression management, training in, 317–318
India, charisma and effectiveness study in, 68, 104, 119
Insight, of charismatic leaders, 48
Institutionalization: of charismatic leadership, 31–33; issue of, 334; and strategic vision, 171, 174–179
Intellectual stimulation, by socialized and personalized leaders, 224–225
Internalization: and perpetuation of charisma, 228; and social influence, 219–220; and visionary leaders, 126–127
Israel, charismatic tradition in, 57
Italy, charisma hunger in, 56
J
Japan: and charismatic tradition, 58; organizational philosophies in, 138
Justification: concept of, 163; for strategic vision, 188, 189, 191–194; structure of, 194–196, 208
K
Keithley Instruments, visionary leader of, 140–141, 151–152
Kentucky, charismatic authority and tenure in, 59–60
Kepner-Tregoe, 153
L
Leader behavior: analysis of, 98–121; background on, 98–99; charismatic, 104–105; and charismatic potential, 116–117; coding, 109–110; and commitment to goals, 116; conclusion on, 118–119; findings on, 110–116; and managerial training and development, 117–118; organizational implications of, 116–118; by presidents, 105–110; studies of, 101–104; transactional theories of, 99–100; transformational theories of, 100–105
Leader Behavior Questionnaire (LBQ), 147
Leadership: considerate, 65; custodial and managerial, 27; heroic, 41. See also Charismatic leaders and leadership; Socialized and personalized leadership; Transactional leadership; Visionary leaders
Lehigh University, 185
Liberal Party (Canada), 168, 169, 171, 173, 180–181, 183, 204, 205
Life span events: concept of, 279; model of, 284, 289
M
McDonald's, and visionary leader, 132, 133
Mary Kay Cosmetics: charismatic leader of, 3, 4; impression management by, 318
Maximum man, leadership by, 34
Minnesota Research Program, 253n
Modeling, training in, 317–318
Motivation, by charismatic leaders, 4
Mouvement Souveraineté-Association (MSA) (Canada), 171–172, 174
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), 67, 69, 232, 288, 302
N
National Commission on Excellence in Education, 266, 274
National Council on Alcoholism: charismatic relationships in, 60; routinization in, 59
National Training Laboratories, 153
Naval Postgraduate School, Research Foundation of, 253n
NBC, and market competition, 131
Northern Pacific Railroad, charismatic leader of, 18
O
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 122n
Office of Naval Research, 253n
Ohio State University, leadership studies at, 5–6
Oregon, cult in, 4
Organizational Effectiveness Research Program, 253n
Organizational behavioral theories of, 23–26; charisma as form of, 258–259, 261–263, 265, 267–269, 271; charismatic leadership in, 80–89; charismatic/transformational leadership in, 294; complex, 62–64; context of, 18–19; culture of, 56, 136, 139, 141, 144; and leader behavior implications, 116–118; levels of, and charisma, 334; socialized and personalized leaders for, 229–230; strategic philosophy of, 138–140, 151–152; strategic vision of, 189–194; tactical policies for, 140–142, 152; visionary leadership for, 122–160
P
Parti Quebecois: context of, 198, 200, 204; and ineffective leadership, 127; and strategic vision, 164, 166, 171, 173, 174–184
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, 99–100
People working together, and visionary leader, 133, 134, 137, 139, 141
People's Express, charismatic leader of, 3
Personality: and charismatic leadership, 19–21, 35; of visionary leaders, 125–131, 148–149
Personalized leadership. See Socialized and personalized leadership
Power: collective, 258–259, 261; need and use for, 125–127, 148–149, 327; personal, 89, 93; socialized, 126–127; and socialized and personalized leaders, 216–219
Presidents: biographical analyses of, 110–111; biographical data on, 107–109; charismatic and noncharismatic, study of, 105–110; classification of, 105–107; findings on, 110–116; published data on, 111–116; ratings of performance by, 112–113, 115
Princeton University, 185
Projection, by followers, 241–242, 243, 245, 248
Prototypicality, of leaders, 52–53
Pseudocharisma, creation of, 241
Psychoanalytical theories: of charismatic leadership, 33–36, 239–250; of development, 284–285, 287–288
Q
Quebec: context of, 198, 199, 201; ineffective leader of, 127; strategic vision in, 164, 165, 166–184, 195, 206
Quick Environment Scanning Technique (QUEST), 315
R
Rassemblement pour l'Independance Nationale (RIN) (Canada), 169, 173
RCA, and market competition, 131
Respect, by visionary leader, 144–145
Risk taking: modeling, 318; by visionary leader, 145–146
Roman Catholic Church, and maintenance of pattern, 135
Routinization: of charisma, 33, 58–59; charisma emerging from, 59–60; of charismatic leadership, 257–258
S
Scandinavian Airline Systems (SAS), and visionary leader, 132, 133
School superintendent: accounting for limits of, 266–270; analysis of limits to charisma of, 253–275; context for, 254–255; at district level, 260–263; empirical assessment of, 260–265; and implications of limits of transfer, 270–272; at state level, 263–265; study design and method for, 259–260
Self-confidence, of charismatic leaders, 47–48
Self-determination, of charismatic leaders, 48
Self-development, of followers, 299–300
Self-efficacy, of followers, 297–298, 300–301, 318–319
Self-management, of followers, 299
Social influence: and perpetuation of charisma, 228–229; and personalized and socialized leaders, 219–222; processes of, 219–220
Social learning theory, and development, 298–299
Socialized and personalized leadership: analysis of, 213–236; background on, 213–215; behaviors of, 222–225; components of, 215; conclusion on, 233; effects of, 225–229; follower needs recognized by, 223–224; goals and values expressed by, 223; hypotheses on, 218–219, 222, 225, 228, 229; implications of, for effectiveness, 229–230; intellectual stimulation by, 224–225; and power motive, 216–219; research needed on, 231–233; and social influence, 219–222; theory of, 215–216
Sovereignty-association, and strategic vision, 169–170, 173, 178–179, 180n, 181, 183, 206
Splitting, and persecutory transference, 248
State Board of Education (Minnesota), 254
Strategic vision: and analogy, 191–194; analysis of, 161–212; aspects of, 188–189; background on, 161–164; bricoleur style of, 207–209; and career relationships, 203–206; of charismatic leaders, 3, 122–212; concept of, 163, 166; context for, 197–206, 208; crescendo of, 179–181; crystallization of, 168–171; disintegration of, 181–184; elaboration of, 171–174; elements of, 162; and father's relationship, 202–203; and fit, 162–163; and institutional context, 197–199; and institutionalization, 171, 174–179; and issue context, 199–200; justification for, 188, 189, 191–194; and market context, 200–201; method of studying, 164–166; of organization, 189–194; origins of, 167–168; and personal context, 201–206, 208; process of, 196–197, 208; of product, 186–189; and product context, 200; rise and fall of, 166–184; styles of, 206–209; and teamwork, 186–187, 188, 189–190; tightrope-walker style of, 206–207, 208, 209; weaving, 184–194
Strategy, concepts of, 166
T
Tanganyika, charismatic realtionships in, 60
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 217, 226
Time span: and development, 278–279, 280, 281, 301–302; of visionary leaders, 128, 130, 131, 149
Times-Mirror Company, and visionary leadership, 145
Training: analysis of, 309–323; background on, 309–312; for charisma, 312–319; in communication, 315–317; conclusion on, 321; in crisis evaluation and detection, 314; and developmental approach, 276–308; in empowering skills, 318–319; ethical issues of, 311, 319–321; functions of, 312–313; in implementing visions, 151–153; managerial, 117–118; on nature of vision, 150–151; in personal behavior, 152–153; in personality and cognitive skills, 148–150; in strategic action, 151–152; in tactical action, 152; for visionary leaders, 148–153; invisioning skills, 314–315
Transactional leadership: and compliance, 220; concept of, 25; and leader behavior, 99–100
Transference: and charisma, 242–249; concept of, 243–244; distortions of, 250; idealizing, 244–245, 246, 247, 248; mirror, 245–246; persecutory, 247–248; types of, 244–249
Transformational leadership: antecedent events for, 283–284, 301; and charisma, 61; and charismatic leadership, 334–335; concepts of, 25–27, 66, 103–104, 213; development of, 276–308; emotional and cognitive development of, 293–297; and followers, 225, 282–283; and identification, 221; intellectual stimulation by, 224; and leader behavior, 100–105; levels of development of, 287–288; overview of, 282–288; retrospective study of, 288–293
Trustworthiness: of charismatic leader, 262; of visionary leader, 143–144
Tunnel vision, prevalence of, 3
U
Union Nationale (Canada), 173, 183
United Kingdom, charismatic relationships in, 60
U.S. Army, charismatic leadership in, 63, 68
U.S. Congress, and loan to Chrysler, 2, 192
U.S. Department of Education, 122n
U.S. Navy: charismatic leader in, 60; leadership motive pattern in, 218
Utopian communities, institutionalized awe in, 32
V
Values. See Goals
Vertical Dyadic Theory of Role Making, 99–100
Vision: achieving, 87–89, 93; action framework for, 134–135, 141, 150; articulating, 86–87, 93, 124–125, 316; and charismatic leadership, 29–30; communicating and operationalizing, 138–148; concepts of, 85, 161; content dimensions of, 132–133, 136–137; expanding, 130; explaining, 129; expressing, 128–129; extending, 129; formulating, 84–86, 93; future, 84–87; implementing, 151–153, 175–176; and maintenance of pattern, 134–136; nature of, 132–137, 150–151; strategic, 161–212; theoretical framework for, 133–136; training in skills for, 314–315; tunnel, 3
Visionary leaders: in action, 138–148; analysis of, 122–160; attention focused by, 142; background on, 122–125; behavior of, 142–148, 152–153; and change, 132, 134, 137, 138–139, 141; cognitive skills of, 127–131, 149–150; communication by, 143, 153; concept of, 123; conclusion on, 153–154; elements of, 124–125; and goals, 132–133, 134, 137; and nature of vision, 132–137, 150–151; and organizational culture, 136, 139, 141, 144; and people working together, 133, 134, 137, 139, 141; personality traits of, 125–131, 148–149; and power need and use, 125–127, 148–149; respect by, 144–145, risk taking by, 145–146; strategic philosophy of, 138–140, 151–152; tactical policies for, 140–142, 152; time span of, 128, 130, 131, 149; training for, 148–153; trustworthiness of, 143–144
W
Women, expressive behavior of, 47
Y